Health Care Reform Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Health Care Reform - Essay Example The most hotly contested issue in the debate is how best to gain universal coverage. While there is agreement that goal is for everyone to have health care coverage, there is much debate over the best mechanisms to achieve the goal. John Holahan, Director and Linda J. Blumberg, Senior Fellow of the Urban Institute Health Policy Center said â€Å"A public plan would not destroy the private insurance market but would make it more competitive and lead to the benefits associated with competition. Many private plans would remain attractive because of their ability to be responsive to consumer demands and to be innovative in care management. Public plans are attractive because they can offer better access to necessary care for diverse populations, have lower administrative costs, and have strong negotiating power with providers† (Karina, 2009). Dr. Sidney Wolfe of the public interest group Public Citizen disagreed, advocating for a single payer Health Care Reform stating â€Å"In s even states, ranging from Washington to Minnesota to Maine, they have tried what amounts to a mixture of a private and a public plan. And in none of the states has there been any sustained reduction in the number of uninsured. Its way too expensive† (Bill Moyers Journal, 2009). The Obama Plan: Stability & Security For All Americans contains a two part proposal with respect to universal coverage. Part 1 under President Obama’s Plan, is the creation of an insurance marketplace, â€Å"the Exchange† that would provide small businesses and individuals with access to a wider variety of choice. Part 2 under the President’s plan offers a more affordable option to those who can’t find affordable coverage in â€Å"the Exchange† or elsewhere (The White House, 2009). In essence, the Public Option would operate similarly to Medicare, except that anyone who cannot afford

Case Study †Art Critical and Historical Studies Essay Example for Free

Case Study – Art Critical and Historical Studies Essay Task Description: Select three artworks that use the physical environment as their inspiration/theme. One is to be a traditional European/early Australian landscape, one a Modernist work and one a Post Modern work. Write an Analysis of each, showing your understanding of how the four frames can provide different ways of appreciating artworks. As a result of the invention of photography the physical environment has been a source of artist inspiration. The evolution of the interpretation of the world around artists can be demonstrated by the exploration of the practice of traditional artist Eugene Von Guerard, modernist artist Rosalie Gascoigne and post-modern artist Janet Laurence. It is from this the audience is able to determine how the physical environment has influenced art and in turn provide insight to the varying perspectives on the appreciation of artworks. Eugene Von Guerard (b. Austria 1811 – d. London 1901) is a traditional European artist who explored the western physical environment. Living in Italy, Germany, Australia and England we can observe the influence which the environs had on his art marking. In the 1830’s Von Guerard trained in Giovanibattista Bassi’s art school in Rome and later studied landscape painting in Germany at the Dusseldorf Academy. Whilst primarily an artist, he also considered himself an explorer taking long treks in Australia and New Zealand. It was from these trips that had created finely detailed pencil drawings in sketch books. These were later used as the bases for his paintings. Von Guerard expressed nature as he remembered it both its overwhelming beauty and terror at times. It is evident in his works the observations he made on the light and colour within nature. He predominately worked in the convention at the time of oil painting. He used the medium meticulously in painstaking detail. Von Guerard’s deep examination of the land around him enabled him to gain an intense relationship with it which in turn reflected in his art making. Von Guerard being a romantic artist, observed the connections between art and nature. He gave a sense of place in the grandeur and beauty of the landscape. Von Guerard investigated the development of colonial art and found issues in the isolation parochialism (of narrow local interest) and within European traditions. His aversion to this resulted in his contribution to the movement away from English landscape tradition. This personal artist style was heavily influenced by Claude Lorraine, Nicolas Poussiu and Salvator Rosa. He was further inspired by the German Romantic landscape tradition; this is exemplified by Casper Friedrich who attempted to link man and God through nature. His influence to the art world saw him being appointed in 1870 to be the first master of school of painting at the National Gallery of Victoria. Here he influenced artist training for eleven years particularly Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts. During this period Von Guerard was renowned for his rigid adherence to picturesque subject matter and detailed treatment. It can be observed within North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko (1863) the romantic style of Von Guerard’s practice. North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko, an oil painting on canvas is immensely large scale at 66. 5 by 116. 8cm. Its meticulous detail heightens the overwhelming size exposing the grandeur of the mountains surrounding the artist. The areas of the foreground and the mound of large boulders on the left are particularly perplexing. The boulders are said to be introduced to emphasise human insignificance and enforce a sense of drama. They serve to provide a link between the foreground, the distant mountains and the sky, that records the passage from heavy rain to bright sunshine. These rocks echo those on peaks at the centre of the composition, gloriously patterned by the snow that has melted to reveal the grassy slopes underneath. The rich purples and oranges and lush greens, matched with the brutality of the rocks and the blankness of the white snow, capture a natural beauty that changes with the time of day and weather conditions. This exemplifies Von Guerard’s passionate emotions towards the landscape and the disappointment as the storm cuts the expedition short. The billowing rainclouds entering from the left create dark shadows over the foreground, the crisp greys and blues suggesting the cool temperatures of the area. Within the foreground the audience observes a narrative in the group of Professor Neumayers scientific expedition undertaking a magnetic survey. The central figure is speculated to Von Guerard to the left is Neumayer. In the distant sky he has captured an approaching storm. The inclusion of the human figures signals both the sense of isolation and the peacefulness of the scene, while also highlighting the vastness of the mountain. It is evident from examination of photographs, the topographical accuracy that Von Guerard evoked. The influence which the conventions at the time had on North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko is highly evident with the composition of the artwork. The framing by the rocks on the left was readily enforced at art schools during this period. Influences of the western world are apparent with relationships between science and art and god and nature. However Von Guerard has moved away from traditional English conventions with his sense of isolation, unknown location and anti-parochial views. By using meticulous detail he strived to depict beauty at its highest form. This meaning North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko was sublime, large and majestic. Unfortunately for Von Guerard this technique employed in North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko was considered a commercial failure. The isolation made it insignificant for the at the time audience to comprehend, this was fuelled with its sublime, grandeur nature. His raw dramatic approach to nature was poorly received. James Smith an influential critic, who had always been an enthusiastic supporter, dismissed Von Guerard’s work for its â€Å"microscopism†. Von Guerard ultimately had to sell the painting himself in Vienna, 1873. James Gleeson found it 100 years after it creation and passed it on to the Australian National Gallery. Von Guerard’s paintings are often praised by contemporary critics for their grandeur and faithfulness to nature, although they were also criticised for their photographic nature. Art Curator Candice Bruce who brought Von Guerard’s work back into the light in 1980, spoke of the work in a positive regard telling of the â€Å"high complexity and depth†¦ exposing audiences to the subtle charm of this fantastic land of monstrosities†. This positive reception is enforced by Geelong Galleries, Geoffrey Edwards who articulates of the â€Å"remarkable masterpiece†, that is â€Å"a golden vista†¦beautifully lit†¦ shines off its colonial enterprise† and has â€Å"no substitute†. Today Von Guerard’s paintings are valued for the compositions and executions as for the subject matter. His strong interest in Romantic association has resulted in a heavy influence in his art making. His practice is highly nationalistic in representation; this is evident in the exaggerated poetic purpose in North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko. Von Guerard’s practice a century later influenced Imants Tillers (b. Australia 1950) to create the appropriation of North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko, titled Mount Analogue (1985). Mount Analogue is an immensely large scale (279. 5 by 571. 5cm) oil stick and synthetic polymer paint on 165 canvas boards. It is a reinterpretation of the exact view of Von Guerard’s. His work challenges the authenticity of the original as it too is an interpretation, however it can be observed the different interpretations of the physical landscape. The examination of the practice of Von Guerard has determined the significant influence the physical landscape has had upon his inspiration as an artist. The audience is able to observe through the decomposition of his artwork North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko the vast perspectives in which we can appreciate artworks. Similarly, Modernist artist Rosalie Gascoigne (b. New Zealand 1917 – d. Australia 1999) draws inspiration from the Australian. Living in rural town of Monaro in the Southwest of New South Wales it is evident within her art making the influence the physical environment had. Rosalie Gascoigne became an â€Å"artist† late in life. She had studied literature at university, acquiring an abiding love of poetry. She later would come to describe her working practice by quoting Wordsworth on â€Å"emotion recollected in tranquillity†. Gascoigne never attempted to paint and never sought to go to art school. I’ve always known how hopeless I was at painting or drawing†. She spent many long days in solitude where she developed her highly original powers of observation. She broke the status quo of her time by creating assemblages of found materials including wood, iron, wire, feathers, signs, boxes, crates, lino, enamelware, galvanised tin, corrugated iron and masonite. These objects rather than accurately depict, elements of the world around her: the landscape around her home and the materials and textures of rural life. Travelling around the countryside collecting materials was integral to Gascoigne’s art practice. Gascoigne a bored 1950’s housewife having no training as an artist created works without considering conventions of the period. Her singular vision of the landscape was expressed in stunning decisive constructions made from the worn and weathered objects she found within it. She found the Australian landscape had a degree of personal freedom in it and became absorbed by â€Å"the width and the rock under your feet and the high sky†. She was not interested in describing the visual reality, picturesque beauty or stores of the Australian landscape, and chose to capture the essence of the landscape’s opography, space, air, vegetation and the daily and seasonal natural rhythms of nature, in compositions that were often startling in their refined simplicity. This was further influenced by the poetry of Peter Porter and David Campbell who also evoked their work around the landscape of Canberra. Gascoigne intricately has woven glimpses of her past feelings and experiences into her work creating art of an extraordinarily transcendent nature. Piece to Walk Around (1981) highlights the unique nature of Gascoigne’s practice. Piece to Walk Around, is comprised of bundles of saffron thistle sticks arranged into 20 squares each 80 by 80 by 1. 5 cm. These squares lay directly on the floor in a patchwork; one bundle running one way, then one other. The criss-cross formation recalls the undulating countryside, the ordering of agriculture and industry and the mottled effects of light and shadow on it. The work conveys a sense of infinite expansiveness and liberation experienced in the country, as manifested through the grid, here understood as an open-ended structure to which additional bundles of thistles could be theoretically added or subtracted. In Piece to Walk Around the literal depiction of the environment is stripped back to its very essence and the work becomes a microcosm of the landscape. The title is used to draw attention to the changing visual effects as one circles the work and the shifting play on the natural material. It is evident from the innovative nature of Piece to Walk Around that western conventions had little impact on Gascoigne’s practice. However Japanese influence is demonstrated through the formal composition and precise organisation of the bundles. The absence of art school allowed for Gascoigne to be singularly influenced by the world around her and not by conventions enforced by the art masters. The resolved use and order of her â€Å"found† materials reflects the influence her interest in flower arranging induced. The isolation of which she endured in the country allowed ability to entirely appreciate and observe the world around her before drawing inspiration from it. Piece to Walk Around was well received by the art world. Its simplicity made it easy for the audience to comprehend fulfilling Gascoigne’s aim to make art accessible to everyone. Gascoigne proposed that whilst â€Å"the viewer’s response to the landscape may differ† she hopes that â€Å"this picture will convey some sense of the countryside† and â€Å"induce in the viewer the liberating feeling of being in the open country†. Her Sydney dealer of over 10 years Roslyn Oxley said â€Å"she was very strong and to the point; there is never anything timid about her work†. Critic Sebastian Smee noted that â€Å"Gascoigne resembles a scavenging bowerbird in a world where the production of blue plastic has ceased. What to do? What to do†¦.? Nest while you can! †. This quote illuminates practice precisely highlighting the beauty and simplicity of her work from the influence of nature. Australian Art Collector reporter Judith White spoke of Piece to Walk Around being a â€Å"unique and imperishable contribution to art†. In 1994 Gascoigne was awarded an Order of Australia for services to art signifying her contribution to the art world. Piece to Walk Around was donated by the Gascoigne family after Roslyn Gascoigne’s death to the Museum of Contemporary Art allowing for a broader audience and the ability for her artwork to inspire a new generation. It was Gascoigne’s innovative practice that resulted in her success. Gascoigne’s engages minimalism’s sense of order in an original take on the physical environment. She employs a mixture Japanese of formal composition and rough Australian nature to break traditional conventions that define the individual styles. Gascoigne’s concepts from Piece to Walk Around were evident amongst a broad range of her artworks. Untitled 12 squares of 6 (1980-81) is another segment from the series in which Piece to Walk Around is derived from. It is created with identical composition as Piece to Walk Around however constructed from sawn weather wood to a large 90 by 119. 5cm. This artwork demonstrates the concept of how individuals can gather varying interpretations from the physical landscape and that this inspiration can impact upon the broad material practice of an artist. Through the analysis of Gascoigne’s practice, it can be observed the substantial influence that the physical landscape has had upon the artist. The audience is able to compare through the decomposition of Gascoigne’s artwork Piece to Walk Around the varying influences that the environment around them has had. It is through this the audience is able to full appreciate the construction of these artworks. It seems the influence of the physical environment has had on artists has continued to the present day through the examination of Post Modern artist Janet Laurence (b. Sydney, Australia 1947 ). Living in the city of Sydney it is exceedingly evident within the strong messages within her artwork the influence the physical environment had upon her.

Literature Review On Soil Erosion

Literature Review On Soil Erosion The Latin word erodere, (meaning to gnaw away) is the origin of the word erosion (Roose, 1996). Soil Erosion is the physical removal of topsoil by various agents, including falling raindrops, water flowing over the soil profile and gravitational pull (Lal 1990). The Soil Science Society of America defines erosion as the wearing away of the land surface by running water, wind, ice or other geological agents, including such processes as gravitational creep (SCSA, 1982). Physical erosion involves the detachment and transportation of insoluble soil particles (sand, silt and organic matter). Removal of soluble material as dissolved substances is called chemical erosion and this maybe caused by surface runoff or subsurface flow where the water moves from one layer to another within the soil profile (Lal 1990). According to ASCE, 1975, the physical processes in soil erosion include detachment of soil particles, their transportation and subsequent deposition of soil sediments downslope by raindrop impact and runoff over the soil surface. Rainfall is the most important detaching agent (Morgan and Davidson 1986; Lal, 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining soil particles (Lal 1990). The process of soil erosion occurs in three main steps, detachment of soil particles, transportation and deposition of soil particles downslope by raindrop impact and runoff over the soil surface (ASCE 1975; Morgan and Davidson, 1986, Lal 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining soil particles (Lal, 1990). Soil erosion reduces soil productivity by physical loss of topsoil, reduction in rooting depth and loss of water. In contrast soil, soil depletion means loss or decline of soil fertility due to crop removal or removal of nutrients by eluviations from water passing through the soil profile (Lal, 1990). Sedimentation however, causes off site effects like degradation of basins, accumulation of silts in water reservoirs and burial of low-lying productive areas and other problems (Lal, 1990). Sediments is the main cause of pollution and eutrophication (Lal, 1990). According to Lal 1990, soil degradation may be caused by accelerated soil erosion, depletion through intensive land use , deterioration in soil structure, changes in soil pH, leaching, salt accumulation, build up of toxic elelments such as aluminum or zinc, excessive inundation leading to reduced soil conditions and poor aeration. Soil Erosion is the most serious and least reversible form of land degradation (Lal, 1977; El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong, 1982). Soil erosion and soil loss , according to Lal (1990) have adverse effects on agriculture because they deplete the soils productivity and diminish the resourse base. 2.2 Soil Erosion Process Geologic erosion can be caused by a number of natural agents including rainfall, flowing water and ice, wind and the the mass movement of soil bodies under the action of gravity which cause the loosened or dissolved earthy and rock materials to be removed from a place and eventually deposited to a new location (Lal,1990; Morgan and Davidson, 1986). The Soil Science Society of America (SCSA, 1982) described geologic erosion as the normal or natural erosion caused by geologic processes acting over long periods and resulting in the wearing away of mountains, the building up of flood plains, coastal plains. Etc. The slow and constructive natural soil erosion process has been significantly accelerated by human activities of poor farming practices, overgrazing, ground clearing for construction, logging and mining (Lo, 1990). Accelerated erosion not only affects the soil but also the environment and is the primary cause of soil degradation (Lal, 1990). Agriculture has been identified as th e primary cause of accelerated soil erosion (Pimentel, 1976). 2.3 Soil Characteristics in the Tropics Extremes of climate and wide variety of parent materials cause great contrast of soil properties in the tropics from soils in other temperate regions. In the tropics soils are highly variable and diverse like the vegetation (Sanchez and Buoi, 1975; Van Wambeke, 1992). The main soil types are alfisols, oxisols, ultisols and inceptisols (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropical soils low in weatherable minerals and basic cations (sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium) resulted from continuous weathering of parent materials (Lo, 1990). The ability of these soils to keep plant nutrients is largely dependent on the humus content found in plant biomass and the organic matter (Rose,1993). The inactivity of soil mineral constituents (kaolin and sesquioxides) in these soils, causes deficiency in crop nutrients, lowers the capacity to retain basic cations, limits active relationship with organic matter and excessively immobilizes phosphates and related anions, a condition which are highly toxic to plant roots (Lo, 1990). Crop production in tropical soils are constrained by primarily aluminum- derived soil acidity and infertility but generally their physical properties are favourable (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropic soils have moderate to high permeability under natural conditions, but susceptible to slaking and development of impermeable crust upon action of raindrops and as a result runoff increases with continuous cultivation (Lal, 1982). This crusting cause insignificant reduction of filtration rate, increasing water runoff which leads to acceleration of soil erosion (Falayl and Lal, 1979). It is important to note however that heavy and intense rains cause severe erosion in the tropics (Morgan, 1974; Wilkinson 1975; Amezquita and Forsythe, 1975; Lal 1976; Aina, Lal and Taylor, 1977; Bois, 1978; Sheng 1982). 2.4 Soil Erosion on Steep Slope According to Lal 1990, Steeplands refer to lands with a slope gradient greater than 20%. It is important to note however that flat undulating lands have a great potential for crop production and agricultural development. Due to the possibility of soil erosion and the problem of mechanization, the steep areas are considered marginal for agriculture production (Lal, 1990). The difficult topography in steepland agriculture restricts mechanizations of operations thus, reducing all agricultural activities (land preparation, cultivation and harvesting), limiting the farmer in scale and efficiency. Inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides have to be carried manually by the farmer. As a resulted they are used scarcely. Observably any increase in the use of these agricultural inputs will result in decline in he farmers profits from the generally lower agricultural field (Benvenuti, 1988). For all these reasons steepland farmers tend to concentrate in high value crop production of limited scale (Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad 1990). It is important to note however that farmers prefer steepslopes due to cultural hand cultivation, planting and harvesting can be done in an upright fashion (Williams and Walter, 1988). Futher more subsistence farmers are found on steep slopes because of more favourable environmental conditions such as lower temperatures, reduced diseases and h igher reliability of rainfall. (Hurni, 1988). In the tropics, removal of forest vegetation causes excessive leaching and accelerated soil nutrient loss. Being highly weathered soil types , their contained minerals generally have poor ability to retain sorbed nutrients against leaching. Clay soils with high residualmiron contents are considered superior in resistance to runoff caused soil erosion; thus, soils emanated from basic igneous rocks and red soils developed from calcareous rocks are strongly aggregated due to the cementing property of iron oxides, hence, soil erosion is expected to be less than for most other soils. Also soils developed from fragmentary volcanic materials with andic properties are resistant to soil erosion (Sheng, 1986; Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad, 1990; Lal, 1990). Soils formed from shales, schists, phyillites and sandstones are considered highly erodible. Soils produced from these rocks are high in both sand or silt fraction, and clay minerals and iron oxides are generally insufficient as cementing agents for a stable-structured soil. These parent materials are generally rich in muscovite occurring in all soil particle-size fractions. Micah-rich soils are weak-structured, and thus raindrops can easily dislodged the weak aggregates, while the clay fraction dispersed in water. The resulting mica flakes settling on their flat axes in the water film on the soil surface causes soil crusting. The formation of soil crusts further restricts water entry into the soil (Ahmad and Robin, 1971; Sumner, 1995), resulting to disposal of a much greater volume of runoff water, a condition which leads to further disintegration of soil aggregates and transport of colloidal soil material (Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad 1990). Soil crust restricts gaseous exchange leading to anaerobic soil conditions, denitrification, toxic effects due to ethylene production, and mechanical impedance to seedling emergence (Ahmad 1987; Ahmad, 1990). Steep slope cultivation can cause certain instability in the ecological system with both onsite and offsite detrimental impacts (El-Swaify, Garnier and Lo, 1987). Soil, climate, land use and farming systems affect the extent and the degree of severity of soil erosion. However, regardless of soil and climatic conditions, intensively used steeplands in densely populated regions experience severe soil erosion problem. Land use influences the degree of severity of soil erosion on steeplands. Uncontrollable grazing or over grazing, exensive and abusive cultivation, diversified cropping are responsible for severe soil erosion in unprotected arable lands (Roose, 1988; Liao et al 1988). Ahmad (1987;1990) reportd soil loss of approximately 120 t0 180 tonnes per hectare in Tobago Trinidad. In Australia, annual soil loss of 200 t/ha to 328 t/ha has ben reported from sloping sugar cane plantations in central and north Queensland (Sallaway, 1979; Mathews and Makepeace 1981). There are two types of soil erosion associated with the Caribbean region, land slipping and gullying. Land slipping is a manifestation of mass movement associated with steepland agriculture and the severity being strongly influenced by the parent materials. Land clearing (example deforestation) and crop production can influence land slipping particularly in the early portion of the wet season when the cleared soil wets faster due to saturation of the soil above rock. Serious dislocations, crop loss and destruction of any mechanical anti erosion devices can result from this form of mass movements. Due to drastic changes in hydrological conditions experienced by land naturally prone already to slipping and cleared for agriculture for the first time land slippage would be of common experience (Ahmad 1987; Ahmad 1990). Gullying is another common form of soil erosion that occurs on steep land bcause of the terrain involved. This is more common on sandy soils, volcanic soils and vertisols, which are all porous materials. Soils easily attain saturated conditions upon the rapid entry of water, consequently breaking the material and ultimately, leading to the formation of gullies. Agricultural activities enables this soil erosion in steeplands by allowing rapid soil wetting upon the start of the wet season. Farming activities though unsuitably oriented field boundaries, foot tracks and the lack of provision for disposal of surface water are some main causes of gullying, even on soils not prone to this tpe of steepland soil erosion (Ahmad 1987;Ahmad 1990). Since steeplands are traditionally considered marginal for agricultural crop production, most research on soil erosion and soil conservation has been done on either flat land or rolling land with a maximum slope of about 20%'(Lal, 1988). 2.5 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion The causes of soil erosion have been intensively discussed during the past 40 years. Soil erosion is a natural process that is enhanced by human activity (Richter, 1998) and occurs in all landscapes and under different land uses. In addition to human activities, soil erosion processes are also caused by morphometric characteristics of the land surface, the erosive forces of rainfall and the erodibility of soils and soil surfaces. When rainwater reaches the soil surface it will either enter the soil or run off. Runoff occurs when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Water erosion is the result of the dispersion action of rain drops, the transporting power of water and also the vulnerability of the soil to dispersion and movement (Baver and Gardner, 1972). The effects of soil erosion is also classified: definition of gullies and explanation of gully development is given by Morgan (1996), as well as Hudson (1995) who additionally focuses on individual cases of the development of gullies. Toy et al (2002) give detailed definitions of soil erosion features and processes such as sheet erosion and inter-rill erosion, rill erosion, as well as ephemeral and permanent gully erosion. Rill erodibility depends both directly and indirectly on soil properties such as bulk density, organic carbon and clay content, clay mineralogy, cations in the exchange complex, soil pH and experimental conditions such as moisture content, aging of prewetted soil and quality of eroding water (Rapp,1998). Govers (1990) found that runoff erosion resisitance of a loamy material was extremely sensitive to variation in the initial moisture content and to a lesser extent to changes in bulk density. The process of water erosion can be separated into two components, rill and interrill erosion (Young and Onstad, 1978). Interrill erosion (sheet erosion) is mainly caused by raindrop impact and removes soil in a thin almost imperceptible layer (Foster, 1989). In interril erosion the flow of water is generally unconfined, except between soil clods and covers much of the soil surface. As the velocity of flow increases the water incises into the soil and rills forms (Evans,1980). Rill erosion begins when the eroding capacity of the flow at some point exceeds the ability of the soil particles to resistant detachment by flow (Meyer cited by Rapp, 1998). Soil is detached by headcut advance from knickpoints (De Ploey, 1989; Bryan, 1990), rill slide sloughing and hydraulic shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998) as well as by slumping by undercutting of side walls and scour hole formation (Van Liew and Saxton, 1983). These processes are usually combined into a detachment prediction equation as a function of average shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998). When the rills develop in the landscape, a three to five fold increase in the soil loss commonly occurs (Moss, Green and Hutka 1982 and Meyer and Harmon 1984). 2.5.1 Vegetative Factors The effects of vegetation can be classified into three catergories: The interception of raindrops by the canopy (DHuyvetter, 1985). Two effects are associated with this. Firstly, part of the intercepted water will evaporate from the leaves and stems and thus reduce runoff. Secondly, when raindrops strike the vegetation, the energy of the drops is dissipated and there is no direct impact on the soil surface. The interception percentage depends on the type of crop, the growth stage and the number of plants per unit area. A well distributed, close growing surface vegetative cover will slow down the rate at which water flows down the slope and will also reduce concentration of water (DHuyvetter, 1985). As a result, it will decrease the erosive action of running water. There is also the effect of roots and biological activity on the formation of stable aggregrates, which results in a stable soil structure and increased infiltration that reduces runoff and decreases erosion (DHuyvetter, 1985). Increased permeability also reduces erosion as a result of in increased water percolation due to better drainage. Stables aggregrates in the topsoil also counteract crusting. 2.5.2 Rainfall Factors Raindrop size, shape, duration of a storm and wind speed interactions controls the erosive power of rainfall (DHuyvetter, 1985). The erosivity of rainfall is expressed in terms of kinetic energy and is affected by various factors. According to Wischmeier and Smith (1965), the intensity of rainfall is closely related tot e kinetic energy, according to the regression equation E = 1.213 + 0.890 log I Where E = the kinetic energy (kg.m/m2.mm) I = rainfall intensity (mm/h) Raindrop size, distribution and shape all influence the energy momentum of a rainstorm. Laws and Parson (1943) reported an increase in median drop size with increase in rain intensity. The relationship between mean drop size (D50) and rainfall is given by: D50:2.23 I 0.182 (inch per hour). The median size of rain drops increases with low and medium intensity fall, but declines slightly for high intensity rainfall (Gerrard, 1981). The kinetic energy of an rainfall event is also related to the velocity of the raindrops at the time of impact with the soil (DHuyvetter, 1985). The distance through which the rain drop must fall to maintain terminal velocity is a function of drop size. The kinetic energy of a rainstorm is related to the terminal velocity according to the equation: Ek = IV2/2 Where Ek = energy of the rain storm I = Intensity V= Velocity of raindrop before impact Ellison (1945) developed an equation showing that the relationship between the soil detached, terminal velocity, drop diameter and rainfall intensity: E = KV4.33 d1.07 I0.63 Where E = relative amount of soil detached K = soil constant V = velocity of raindrops (ft/sec) d = diameter of raindrops (mm) I = rainfall intensity 2.5.2.1 Effect of rainfall intensity on runoff and soil loss According to Morgan (1995), soil loss is closely related to rainfall partly through the detaching power of raindrops striking the soil surface and the contribution of rain to runoff. If rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration capacity of the soil, no surface runoff occurs and the infiltration rate would equal the rainfall intensity (Horton, 1945) as sited by Morgan (1995). If the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration rate equals the infiltration capacity and the excess rainfall forms surface runoff. According to Morgan (1995), when the soil is unsaturated, the soil matric potential is negative and water is held in the capillaries due to matrics suction. For this reason, under saturated conditions sands may produce runoff very quickly although their infiltration capacity is not exceeded by the rainfall intensity. Intensity partially controls hydraulic conductivity, increasing the rainfall intensity may cause conductivity to rise so that although runoff may have formed rapidly at relatively low rainfall intensity, higher rainfall intensities do not always produce greater runoff (Morgan, 1995). This mechanism explains the reason why infiltration rates sometimes increase with rainfall intensities (Nassif and Wilson, 1975). 2.5.3 Soil Factors According to Baver et al, (1972), the effect of soil properties on water erosion can be in two ways : Firstly, certain properties determine the rate at which rainfall enters the soil. Secondly, some properties affect the resistance of the soil against dispersion and erosion during rainfall and runoff. The particle size distribution is an important soil property with regards to erodibility. Generally it is found that erodible soils have a low clay content (DHuyvetter, 1985). Soils with more than 35% clay are often regarded as being cohesive and having stable aggregates which are resistant to dispersion by raindrops (Evans, 1980). Evans also stated that sands and coarse loamy sands are not easily eroded by water due to its high infiltration rate. In contrast soils with a high silt or fine sand fraction are very erodible. Erodibility of soil increases with the proportion of aggregates less than 0.5mm (Bryan, 1974). Factors which contribute to aggregate stability include organic matter content, root secretions, mucilaginous gels formed by break down of organic matter, the binding of particles by sesquioxides and the presence of a high Ca concentration on the exchange sites of the colloids instead of a high sodium content (DHuyvetter, 1985). The depth of erosion is determined by the soil profile (Evans, 1980). According to Evans soil horizons below the A horizon or plough layer are often more compact and less erodible. The texture and chemical composition of the sub surface horizon can also have an adverse effect. Normally deep gullies can be cut if the parent material is unconsolidated. If resistant bedrock is near the surface only rills will develop. Soil rich in surface stones are less susceptible to erosion (Lamb, 1950 and Evans, 1980). Stones protect the soil against erosion and also increase the infiltration of the flowing water into the soil. The antecedent soil moisture and the surface roughness are both regarded by Evans (1980) as important soil factors affecting erosion. The ability of a soil to accept rainfall depends on the moisture content at the time of the rainfall event. 2.5.3.1 Factors affecting aggregate stability Soil structure is determined by the shape and size distribution of aggregates. Aggregrate size and strengthe determine the physical properties of a soil and its susceptibility to breakdown due to water forces. Their stability will have a decisive effect on soil physical properties (Lynch and Bragg, 1985). The main binding materials giving stable aggregates in air dry state are the glueing agents in organic matter (Chaney and Swift, 1984; Tisdale and Oades, 1982) and sesquioxides (Goldberg and Glaubic, 1987). 2.5.3.1.1 Aluminium and Iron Oxides The soil used by Kemper and Koch (1966) contained relatively little free iron, although it did contribute to aggregrate stability. Their data show a sharp increase of free iron from 1 to 3%. Goldberg and Glaubic (1987) concluded that Al-oxides were more effective than Fe-oxides in stabilizing soil structure. Al-oxides have a greater proportion of sub-micrometer size particles in a sheet form as opposed to the spherical form of Fe-particles. Shainberg, Singer and Janitzky (1987) compared the effect of aluminium and iron oxides on the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy soil. 2.5.3.1.2 Organic Matter Organic matter can bind soil particles together into stable soil aggregates. The stabilizing effect of organic matter is well documented. Little detailed information is available on the organic matter content required to sufficiently strengthen aggregates with ESP values greater than 5 or 7, and containing illite or montmorrillionite, so as to prevent their dispersion in water (Smith, 1990). High humus content makes the soil less susceptible to the unfavourable influence of sodium (Van den Berg, De Boer, Van der Malen, Verhoeven, Westerhof and Zuur, 1953). Kemper and Koch (1966) also found that aggregate stability increased with an increase in the organic matter content of soils. A maximum increase of aggregate stability was found with up to 2% organic matter, after which aggregate stability increased very little with further increases in organic matter content. 2.5.3 Slope Factors Slope characteristics are important in determining the amount of runoff and erosion ( DHuyvetter, 1985). As slope gradient increases, runoff and erosion usually increases (Stern, 1990). At low slopes due to the low overland flow velocities, detachment of soil particles from the soil surface into the water layer is due to detachment alone (Stern, 1990). Additionally, at low slope gradients, particles are splashed into the air in random directions unlike the case with steeply sloping land where down slope splash occurs (Watson and Laflen, 1985). As slope gradient increases, the ability for surface runoff to entrain and transport sediments increases rapidly until the entrainment by the surface runoff becomes dominant contributing to sediment transport (Stern, 1990). Foster , Meyer and Onstad (1976) presented a conceptual model that showed that at lower slopes, interill transport determined erosion, while at steeper slopes, raindrop detachment determined it. Th uniform bed characteristics of sheet flow transport tend to be replaced by channels because of instability and turbulent flow effects (Moss, Green and Hutka, 1982). There are many empirical relationships relating soil transport by surface wash to slope length and slope gradient. Zingg (1940) showed that erosion varied according to the equation: S = X1.6 tanB1.4 Where S = soil transport cm/yr X = slope length (m) B = slope gradient (%) Studies conducted by Gerrard (1981), showed that plane and convex slopes did not differ significantly in the amount of soil lost by surface runoff, but concave slopes were less eroded. Some researchers such as Zingg (1940) and Mc Cool et al (1987) indicated that soil erosion increases exponentially with increase in slope gradient. The relationship is indicated after Zing (1940) by: E = aSb where E is the soil erosion, S is the slope gradient (%) and a and b are empirical constants. The value of b ranges from 1.35 to 2.0. The other relationship between erosion and slope gradient for inter-rill erosion is given by Mc Cool et al (1987) E = a sin b Q+C Q is the slope angle in degrees A,b and C are empirical constants. However, even if the effect of slope gradient on erosion is well recognized, several studies indicate that the power relationship between slope gradient and soil loss over predicts interrill erosion rate by as much as two or more times (Torri, 1996;Fox and Bryan, 1999), and the relationship is better described as linear. 2.8 Soil Erosion Impacts 2.8.1 Soil Physical Properties Progressive soil erosion increases the magnitude of soil related constraints for crop production. These constraints can be physical, chemical and biological. The important physical constraints caused by erosion are reduced rooting depth, loss of soil water storing capacity (Schertz et al 1984; Sertsu, 2000), crusting and soil compaction and hardening of plinthite (Lal, 1988). Erosion also results in the loss of clay colloids due to preferential removal of fine particles from the soil surface (Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). The loss of clay influences soil tilth and consistency. Exposed subsoil is often of massive structure and harder consistency than the aggregated surface soil (Lal, 1988). Development of rills and gullies may change the micro-relief that may make use of farming machinery difficult. Another effect of erosion is that the manangement and timing of farm operations. 2.8.2 Soil Chemical Properties Soil erosion reduces the fertility status of soils (Morgan, 1986; Williams et al., 1990). Soil chemical constraints and nutritional problems related to soil erosion include low CEC, low plant nutrients (NPK) and trace elements (Lal, 1988; Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). Massy et al (1953) reported an average loss of 192 kg of organic matter, 10.6 kg of N and 1.8kg per ha on a Winsconsin soils with 11% slope. Sharpley and Smith (1990) reported that the mean annual loss of total P in runoff from P fertilized watersheds is equivalent to an average of 15%, 12% and 32% of the annual fertilizer P applied to wheat, mixed crop grass and peanut sorghum rotation practices respectively. Researchers (Massy et al 1953; Lal, 1975) have also reported extensive loss of N in eroded sediments. 2.8.3 Productivity Quantifying the effects on crop yields is a difficult task. It involves the evaluation of interactions between soil properties, crop characteristics and climate. The effects are also cumulative and not observed until long after accelerated erosion begins. The degree of soil erosions effects on crop yield depends on soil profile characteristics and management systems. It is difficult to establish a direct relationship between rates of soil erosion and erosion induced soil degradation on the one hand and crop yield on the other (Lal, 1988). It is well known that soil erosion can reduce crop yields through loss of nutrients, structural degradation and reduce of depth and water holding capacity (Timilin et al, 1986; Lal,1988). Loss of production in eroded soil further degrades its productivity which in turn accelerates soil erosion. The cumulative effect observed over a long period of time may lead to irreversible loss of productivity in shallow soils with hardened plinthite or in soils that respond to expensive management and additional inputs (Lal,1988). 2.8.4 Off Site Effects of Soil Erosion. Effects of erosion include siltation of rivers, crop failure at low lying areas due to flooding, pollution of waterbodies due to the various chemicals brought by the runoff from different areas. Several studies reported the significance of the off site effects of soil erosion on land degradation (eg. Wall and ven Den,1987; Lo, 1990; Robertson and Colletti, 1994; Petkovic et al, 1999) Rainwater washes away materials that originate from fertilizers and various biocides (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides and pesticides) which are applied in large concentrations. They reappear in greatr quantities in the hydrosphere polluting and contaminating the water environment (Zachar,1982;Withers, and Lord, 2002; Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002). Chemical pollution of water mainly by organic matter from farm fields causes rapid eutrophication in waterways (Zachar, 1982;Zakova et al, 1993; Lijklema, 1995). 2.8.5 Soil Erosion Models Modelling soil erosion is the process of mathematically describing soil particle detachment, transport and deposition on land surfaces (Nearing et al, 1994). Erosion models are used as predictive tools for assessing soil loss and project planning. They can also be used for understanding erosion processes and their impacts (Nearing et al 1994). There are three main types of models, empirical or statistical models, conceptual models and physically based models (Morgan 1995, Nearing et al 1994, Merritt et al 2003). It is important to note however that there is no sharp difference among them. 2.8.5.1 Physically Based Models These models are based on solving fundamental physical equations describing stream flow and sediment and associated nutrient generations in a specific catchment (Merritt et al ., 2003). They are developed to predict the spatial distribution of runoff and sediment over land surfaces during individual storms in addition to total runoff and soil loss (Morgan, 1995). Physically based models are also called process based models (Morgan, 1995) as they rely on empirical equations to determine erosion processes. These models use a particular differential equation known as the continuity equation which is a statement of conservation of matter as it moves through space over time. The common physically based models used in water quality studies and erosion include : The Areal Non-Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation (ANSWERS) (Beasley et al., 1980), Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) (Knisel, 1980), Griffith University Erosion System Temp late (GUEST) (Misra and Rose, 1996), European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM) (Morgan, 1998), Productivity, Erosion and Runoff, Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques (PERFECT) (Littleboy et al., 1992) and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) (Laflen et al., 1991). 2.8.5.2 Empirical M

The Human Genome Project Essay -- Genetics Science Biology Essays

The Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project is a long-term project by international scientist to develop detailed genetic and physical maps of the human genome. Researchers are engaged in locating and identifying all of its genes and establishing the sequence of the genes and all other components of the genome. This monstrous task has the potential to dramatically increase our understanding of human evolution and variation, and perhaps most importantly†¦human disease. The success of the Human Genome Project also poses potential societal problems. Some genetic disorders will be detectable long before there will be treatments available for them. Controversy could also arise over reproductive issues. For example, people may consider terminating pregnancies for reasons of genetic makeup, or if there is social pressure to limit reproductive rights or genetic grounds. Issues of genetic discrimination and confidentiality in the insurance industry and employment also must be addressed. The Project In 1988, a committee organized by the National Institutes of Health and the Department of Energy developed an action plan for the Human Genome Project. In 1990, a five-year joint research proposal was submitted to Congress, and in October 1990, the Human Genome Project officially began. The project has been organized and supported primarily by the DOE and the NIH, which established working groups to address genome mapping, computational analysis to handle databases, and the social, legal, and ethical implications of the human genome research. Congress funds the project through the National Center for Human Genome Research at the NIH, which in turn awards grants and contracts to U.S. investigators. Additional funding from Con... ...of the "human being," absolutely outweigh the negative factors. I do believe however that a certain level of education should begin to inform individuals about the project and the results to come, and perhaps fewer problems will result. References Patenting the Human Genome: The Lancet Oct 2, 1999 p1135 The Human Genome Project and Gene Therapy: A genetic counselors perspective Journal of Prenatal & Neonatal Nursing, Dec 1998 p16 The Code Breaker: Discover, May 1998 p44 Genetic Sampling: big brother, or big science? Public Health Reports:Jan-Feb 1998 p71 The Human Genome Project: http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/home.html Some Other Useful Web Sites Center Site NIH Human Genome Program http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/HGP/ DOE Human Genome Program http://www.er.doe.gov/production/ober/hug_top.html Genome Database http://gdb.org/

Management and Illustrations Pearson Education Essay

This workbook will support you in achieving all aspects of your Apprenticeship framework. This section will help you prepare for the ? rst visit by your assessor, and forms part of the induction to your Apprenticeship. In this section you will ? nd an activity to help you prepare and gather evidence for your assessment related to this topic: 1. Preparing for a Level 3 Apprenticeship Some of the evidence you will be asked to provide will be assessed both through documents and tasks that you have completed in your work and by direct observation. You might be observed by your assessor when you are working. Your supervisor or other colleagues can also observe you at work and complete a witness statement to give to your assessor. These observations should be of real work activities and not simulated tasks. If you are recorded while you are working, you may have to get permission from any colleagues present during the recording. The tasks in this Workbook will provide further evidence for all aspects of your framework. You will also take part in professional discussions with your assessor during the visit. Your assessor may want to discuss your progress with your workplace supervisor, so your supervisor will need to know the planned date of the visit. Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 1 1 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration 1 1. PREPARING FOR A LEVEL 3 APPRENTICESHIP As a Business & Administration Level 3 apprentice, you will play an important support role at work. You will be handling day-to-day activities in an of? ce setting within a business organisation. You could, for example, be working in a public sector organisation, a charity, a newspaper or in an of?ce in a retail setting. The exact nature of your job will depend upon your employer. However, it is likely that you will be helping the business run smoothly by doing tasks such as typing up meeting documents, handling spreadsheets, and dealing with incoming and outgoing post for the organisation. Ef? cient admininstration helps a business run smoothly. The tasks in this section of the Workbook will help you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of your Apprenticeship. You will explore the components of the Apprenticeship, the strategies for assessment and the importance of the Apprenticeship agreement. This will help you to develop an individual learning plan (ILP), which will be reviewed on each assessor visit in a meeting you have with your tutor and your supervisor. 2 Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING The tasks that follow will require you to study the Business Administration Level 3 Apprenticeship framework. You will look at the components of the framework and explain why they are important and how they will be assessed. You will also explore the purpose and usefulness of the Apprenticeship agreement. WorkSkills Unit 1: 1. 1, 1. 2 1 Task 1a Each Apprenticeship has its own framework. The Business Administration Level 3 Apprenticeship is made up of four elements. These are: †¢ employment rights and responsibilities †¢ competence-based element †¢ knowledge-based element †¢ Key or Functional Skills. Complete the table on page 4 to show the quali? cations that make up each element of your Apprenticeship. State the types of evidence you will need to gather. Entries for the ? rst element of the framework have been provided as an example. Once you have done this, develop strategies you could use to gather evidence for each element and suggest ways you could prepare for any tests in Functional Skills or Key Skills, and in the BTEC certi? cate. Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 3 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration 1 Element Employment rights and responsibilities Quali? cation Why it is important WorkSkills for It helps me to settle into my job Apprenticeships and the Apprenticeship and to understand important aspects of being employed. It helps me to assess my time management, learning and personal skills to ensure that I successfully complete my framework. It will help me to think creatively, enquire independently and solve problems. I will look at employment rights and responsibilities, current employment legislation and conditions of service. I’ll examine the role of the trades unions. I will also study con? ict situations and learn the steps to take where there is evidence of bullying or discrimination, and ? nd out about sources of support and advice both in and outside work. I will learn the skills needed to lead a team and the roles and responsibilities of a team leader. Types of evidence Completion of tasks and exercises in my Workbook. Performance evidence, such as observation record and witness testimonies from my supervisor and other colleagues. Work documents, such as contract, job description, payslip, and information about projects that I have worked on. Professional discussions with my assessor. Competencebased element NVQ It will enable me to provide a service level to internal and external customers whilst taking into consideration company expectations/standards and the company code of conduct. Witness statements from my line manager an other colleagues, Planning tools such as flow charts and work plans, Diary pages, Action plans and checklists, e-mails memos and letters. Knowledgebased element BTEC It will help me to understand how Completion of tasks in my to prioritize tasks and produce a workbook and Professional sufficient standard of work. Enable discussions with my assessor. me to understand the requirements of internal and external customers whilst maintaining budgetary requirements. Key or Functional Skills. Functional Skills are to ensure that you have a good level of job supporting skills in English maths and ICT. Assessment through examination. 4 Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration WorkSkills Unit 1: 1. 3 Task 1b The Apprenticeship agreement is a contract entered into between an employer and an apprentice and the Apprenticeship training provider. When you started your Apprenticeship you would have signed an Apprenticeship agreement. The main points that must be covered in this agreement have been set out in legislation. Describe the purpose of the Apprenticeship agreement. Ensure that you cover all the main aspects of the agreement. 1 Agreeing the programme – Business Administration Level 3. Setting out the aims of the programme – to acquire a nationally recognized qualification in a structured programme of work based training. Defining the Training Process – Initial assessment, Individual learning log, Assessment carried out by qualified training and assessment co-ordinators and standards verified by internal and external verifiers/moderators. Monitoring progress, At any time requested plus a formal review, Progress file continually kept up to date. Terms and conditions. Types of training including mentors. Agreed workplace training course. Employment contract and terms and conditions in like with the company policies and employment legislation. Health & Safety – Company or college? Disciplinary principles and procedures – Company or college? Assessment appeals procedure. Preston College will provide me with a competent trainer who is able to offer me the learning, teaching support the relevant work based training, assessment, monitoring and reviews required to enable me to gain the level 3 qualification also offer me an individual work plan and programme which will be validated by the awarding body. I will comply with the terms and conditions set by both my employer and Preston College including attending work and set training sessions with my teacher, whilst working through all the units set in my own time, I will present my portfolio and work assignments for verification as requested. This agreement is to protect all parties involved, the signing of the learning agreement is to show that all parties understand what is required of them throughout the duration of the NVQ training process. WorkSkills Unit 1: 2. 1, 2. 2, 2. 3; Unit 7: 1. 1, 1. 2, 1. 4, 1. 6 PLTS SM: 1, 2, 3 Task 1c You will be required to develop an individual learning plan (ILP) as part of the induction visit. To be prepared for this, you will need to understand progression routes that are available to you and be able to set goals for completion of your framework. It is important to negotiate realistic targets to be included in your ILP. Good targets are ones that meet the SMART test. SMART targets are: †¢ Speci? c – they say exactly what you intend to do †¢ Measurable – you can prove you have reached them †¢ Achievable – they are not beyond your reach †¢ Realistic – you will have access to all the resources you will need to achieve them †¢ Time-related – you have set a deadline for completion. Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 5. BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration 1 Prepare notes on: †¢ the importance of meeting deadlines at work and in learning †¢ the importance of being organised. Being organised is key to meeting targets and deadlines, if you are not organised things can easily be missed resulting in deadlines being missed, when carrying out duties that have a deadline if a person is prepared and well organised the actual task will run a lot smoother resulting in the deadline being more likely to be made if not achieved before the deadline arrives. Organisation within the workplace is key for a healthy running business if a workload is organised it is a lot clearer what the objectives of the task are and how far they have been completed. It is important to have deadlines for tasks to keep business’s running, if no one had a deadline people are more likely to have a more relaxed attitude to completing tasks and workloads thus slowing down the productivity of the business. Then review your development needs and prepare some notes setting out: †¢ your skills and learning requirements †¢ your learning goals. I have been employed by various companies over a 12 year period mainly in administrative rolls but each business has had a variety of different administration needs, there have been customer based, reception based, retail based, admin for a single department and admin for several departments within the business, whilst I do find it beneficial to have a broad knowledge of administration skills most of my abilities are either a basic knowledge or abilities I have developed myself, I would like this course to improve the skills I have already acquired and improve my ability and standard of what I am currently capable of as well as learning new skills to develop my current profession to a very high standard. My goals are to complete the level 3 to a high standard, gain further knowledge of administration & business skills to broaden my capabilities and to be able to give a better work based performance on a day to day basis. 6 Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration Finally, produce targets that you can discuss with your assessor when you meet to ? nalise your individual learning plan. These should be SMART targets, with each having clear deadlines for when they should be achieved. They should relate to: †¢ learning to be undertaken for the completion of the Apprenticeship framework †¢ managing commitments at work and in personal life while on the Apprenticeship †¢ contingency planning for learning not being completed on time. 1 I plan to complete the NVQ with a 17 month period giving myself a month per section, so I can take my time to fully absorb all information required to complete my NVQ to a high standard, to achieve this I plan to spend four hours a week of my personal time, 2 hours on research and planning and 2 hours on practical, written and presentation work, I plan to use any other free time I have in my own time to make sure I am progressing forward at a timely manor which fits in with my out of work commitments, I also plan to use any spare time I may have during working hours to achieve this. As the course must be completed in 24 months I feel that my plan for completion within 17 months gives enough time for any difficulties or unforeseen circumstances I may come across. When you have agreed your plan with your assessor, you should use your targets to check your progress. Remember to ask your assessor on each visit to sign off any targets that you have achieved and completed on time in your individual learning plan (ILP). Do this on every visit. WorkSkills Unit 1: 3. 1, 3. 2 Unit 2: 3. 1, 3. 2, 3. 3 Task 1d When deciding on progression routes, you can look at moving vertically – by going up your career path step by step – or you can move laterally – by looking to see what other careers are open to you at the same level. Administrators develop transferable skills and can ? nd jobs in many different organisations and sectors. You could also go on to further learning in full-time education. Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 7 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration 1 To complete the ? nal section of your individual learning plan, you will need to look at possible progression routes following successful completion of your Apprenticeship. In advance of your assessor’s visit, ? rst research useful sources of information on progression routes. These should cover information on further training and education as well as jobs and careers. List the most useful sources of information here. EducationCollege, adult learning – Various college websites Open University – www. open. ac.uk Full time Education through college or university – Various college and university websites TrainingIn house company training – Line Manager /HR Department Outsourced training such as day / week courses with companies such as Hemsley Fraser or GBS Corporate Training – www. hemsleyfraser. co. uk/ & www. gbscorporate. com/. CareerIn house job shadowing – Line Manager /HR Department Applying for in house promotion Applying for a similar role with better progression opportunities – www. gov. uk/jobsearch Use these sources to identify the occupational opportunities in administration and related sectors that particularly appeal to you. Compare the progression routes that you could take to access these opportunities. Administration can relate to many sectors of a business, personally I like that my current role involves admin for most of our departments as it offers a day to day variation, it also gives a broad knowledge of skills required for each department as the duties are not all the same, the variation offers the opportunity to undergo many different day / week courses to gain more knowledge of a particular department which could lead to a preferred area of the business, you could therefore concentrate on gaining knowledge for that department by job shadowing and taking more intense courses such as adult learning and further education to develop the skills to progress to a higher level in your chosen area of business. 8 Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration Finally, make a note of your preferred career pathway. You should be prepared to discuss your choice when you meet with your assessor. To help you prepare for this meeting, use the space below to set out the steps required to achieve your career ambitions. 1. I personally would like to continue with my career as I feel full time education is not right for me, I would like to continue in my current role for the next approximately 2 years to acquire all the skills I feel I would need to progress, I would then like to look at team leader / junior management positions within the office / administration environment looking after a small team as I feel this would be a natural progression route, once secure in a junior management role I would like to take a further education course such as NVQ level 4 and also job shadowing to gain the skill required for a higher management position. BTEC Unit 9: 1. 1, 1. 2, 1. 3, 1. 4, 1. 5, 1. 6, 2. 1, 2. 2 WorkSkills Unit 4: 1. 1, 1. 2, 1. 3, 1. 4, 2. 1, 2. 2, 2. 3, 2. 4, 3. 1, 3. 2, 3. 3, 3. 4. PROFESSIONAL DISCUSSION Your assessor will conduct a professional discussion with you that will capture evidence necessary to prove your level of knowledge and understanding of relevant topics. Some topic areas you will need to consider when preparing for the professional discussion include: †¢ employment rights †¢ the responsibilities of the employer and the employees †¢ agreed ways of working in your organisation †¢ health, safety and security in the business environment. Your assessor will plan the content of your professional discussion and will offer advice to help you to prepare beforehand. The professional discussion may cover more than the topics considered in this section of your Workbook. Original text and illustrations  ©. Pearson Education Limited, 2011 9 BTEC Apprenticeship Assessment Workbook Level 3 Business & Administration 1 Discussion process The questioning process will offer you the opportunity to show your knowledge and understanding of employment rights and responsibilities and to assess your own performance at work. To prepare for this discussion, you should think about how you could answer the type of questions that might be asked. †¢ What is the purpose of a contract of employment? †¢ What terms and conditions are included on your own contract? †¢ What are the main areas of legislation that affect employees and employers? †¢ What are the main employer and employee responsibilities in relation to equality, diversity and discrimination? †¢ Why is it important to ensure that equality and diversity procedures are followed? †¢ What are your employer’s responsibilities for ensuring health, safety and security where you work? †¢ What are your health and safety responsibilities? Why must you comply with health, safety and security procedures? †¢ Where would you ? nd out about employment rights and responsibilities? What are the main sources of information at work, and what are the useful sources of information outside your organisation? †¢ What are the purpose, function and responsibilities of representative bodies that support employees? †¢ What procedures would you follow in the event of a grievance? †¢ What personal information must you keep up to date with your employer? †¢ What are your agreed ways of working? †¢ What information is contained in your pay statement? †¢ What are the main areas of public concern relevant to the sector in which your organisation operates? †¢ How have these concerns altered public views about the sector? 10 Original text and illustrations  © Pearson Education Limited, 2011.

How Stock Market Prices Are Determined

How Stock Market Prices Are Determined At a very basic level, economists know that stock prices are determined by the supply of and demand for them, and stock prices adjust to keep supply and demand in balance (or equilibrium).  At a deeper level, however, stock prices are set by a combination of factors that no analyst can consistently understand or predict.  A number of economic models assert that stock prices  reflect the long-term earning potential of companies (and, more specifically, the projected growth path of stock dividends). Investors are attracted to stocks of companies they expect will earn substantial profits in the future; because many people wish to buy stocks of such companies, prices of these stocks tend to rise. On the other hand, investors are reluctant to purchase stocks of companies that face bleak earnings prospects; because fewer people wish to buy and more wish to sell these stocks, prices fall. When deciding whether to purchase or sell stocks, investors consider the general business climate and outlook, the financial condition and prospects of the individual companies in which they are considering investing, and whether stock prices relative to earnings already are above or below traditional norms. Interest rate trends also influence stock prices significantly. Rising interest rates tend to depress stock prices - partly because they can foreshadow a general slowdown in economic activity and corporate profits, and partly because they lure investors out of the stock market and into new issues of interest-bearing investments (i.e. bonds of both the corporate and Treasury varieties). Falling rates, conversely, often lead to higher stock prices, both because they suggest easier borrowing and faster growth and because they make new interest-paying investments less attractive to investors. Other Factors That Determine Prices A number of other factors complicate matters, however. For one thing, investors generally buy stocks according to their expectations about the unpredictable future, not according to current earnings. Expectations can be influenced by a variety of factors, many of them not necessarily rational or justified. As a result, the short-term connection between prices and earnings can be tenuous. Momentum also can distort stock prices. Rising prices typically woo more buyers into the market, and the increased demand, in turn, drives prices higher still. Speculators often add to this upward pressure by purchasing shares in the expectation they will be able to sell them later to other buyers at even higher prices. Analysts describe a continuous rise in stock prices as a bull market. When speculative fever can no longer be sustained, prices start to fall. If enough investors become worried about falling prices, they may rush to sell their shares, adding to downward momentum. This is called a bear market. This article is adapted from the book Outline of the U.S. Economy by Conte and Carr and has been adapted with permission from the U.S. Department of State.