My Father, Lieutenant Colonel Wayne Raab Essay - 1294 Words

My Light My grandfather, Lieutenant Colonel Wayne Raab, served in the US Air Force for 27 years. He married the love of his life, Marie Raab, on November 12, 1961. They had one child together, my mom. After my grandpa retired from the Air Force he worked at a paper making company in Sumter, South Carolina. Instead of having flowers in the middle of the dining room table there would be a beer bottle full of Sriracha Hot Chili Sauce. He would put that sauce on everything, he called it his â€Å"magic juice†. My grandparents had a fig tree in their backyard that my grandpa would give a splash of his â€Å"magic juice† to everyday because he said it gives the figs a little extra flavor when they are ripe. He brewed his own beer out of a shed in his backyard. And in 2010 he was diagnosed with Parkinson s Disease. I was only 12 years old when we first found out. My parents didn t really know how to tell me because they thought I was too young and wouldn t be able to understand. They did not want to scare me since I was so close with my grandpa. My grandpa was always the person I went to when I was feeling down because he was always happy and had a joke for every situation. My brother and I would visit every summer, for two weeks, and we would constantly go out and explore Columbia with him. We would go to the pool, hiking, the park, even going to the grocery store was always an adventure with him. There was never a dull moment when he was around, until we started seeing the devastating

Asian American Essay - 738 Words

The American Community in the 1900amp;#8217;s to the 1920amp;#8217;s was in fact a totally different generation than its successor not only because of cultural and economic reasons but also because of world events and the rise of technology. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Americans in the early 1900amp;#8217;s were a closely knit generation with a sense of community, morals, and obligations. They had an quot;instilledquot; set of ideals and values and their lives were very much affected by the rise of technology. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Living in America in the early part of the 1900amp;#8217;s was a hard and trying era through such turbulent times as the Great Depression, World War I, and the Industrial Revolution. Such†¦show more content†¦Americans from every walk of life were affected by this terrible event. But the event that brought the United States out of the Depression could not really be considered a blessing. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;December 7, 1941 was a day that changed the course of history and would plunge all Americans into war when a huge surprise attack was staged on the US Pacific Fleet by the Empire of Japan. Almost overnight the country was united in its stance against the countries of Germany and Japan. The government put huge amounts of money into the economy and Americans found it very easy for them to grab opportunities in factories and the armed forces. Although most Americans of this generation had been more successful than their predecessors they found themselves with many of the same problems. Americans would later have to face these problems during the 1960amp;#8217;s but that is another story. 8. The most important changes of the American community after World War II were a great number of occurrences such as the enormous growth of the American economy as a whole, which after World War II was the strongest in the world. Towns grew into cities and the quality of life for Americans was very high. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Not only did the country prosper by economic means it was a pioneering into different fields of science such as research and development and had some of the most brilliant scientists working to improve the American way of life.Show MoreRelatedAsian American And Asian Americans1638 Words   |  7 PagesAsian Americans are a very diverse group in the United States, which include many races such as Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Korean, Filipino, Indian, and many more. Birth country, ancestry, and family heritage are ways to categorize this specific group. According to the 2010 Census, the Asian American population has grown faster than any other group from 2000 to 2010 (Pew Research, 2012). Asian Americans are either immigrants from Asia or are descendants of immigrants. Asian Americans have anRead MoreAsian American And Asian Americans Essay1560 Words   |  7 PagesAlthough Asian Americans comprise only about 5% of the U.S. population, this group is the fas test growing segment of American society. Despite such rapid expansion, Asian Americans are widely underrepresented throughout media, whether in television, cinema, or literature. Moreover, there are different stereotypes associated with Asian Americans. One of the most pervasive stereotypes details how Asian Americans are a â€Å"model minority†. In essence, this myth describes how anyone who is Asian American willRead MoreAsian American Population And Asian Americans2276 Words   |  10 PagesThe Asian American population is a major facet of American life; beginning their lives as immigrants they have worked their way to become integral members of society. In 2010 there were 14.7 million Asian Americans living in the United States and in 2011 that number increased to 18.2 million.1 Culturally, Asian American people have traditions and beliefs that contradict those of the Western world.2 â€Å"Culture molds people’s values, attitudes, and beliefs; influences their p erceptions of self and others;Read MoreAsian Americans And Asian American Actors3112 Words   |  13 Pages19th century, Asian Americans have been involved in the media industry when the original â€Å"Siamese Twins† Chang and Eng Bunker became naturalized citizens of America. Roles in television and other media were scarce for Asian Americans, only available roles were very stereotypical. Early Asian American actors such as Bruce Lee and Sessue Hayakawa could only land stereotypical supporting roles in prime time television. While minority actors have progress through the years, Asian Americans in the mediaRead MoreAfrican Americans And Asian Americans1421 Words   |  6 Pagesused most often to describe Asian Americans, group seen as having attained economic and education success at significantly higher rates than that of other minority groups. Although first coined by sociologist William Petersen in 1966, the term â€Å"model minority† was not popularized and nat ionalized as a reference to Asian Americans through radio and television outlets, and even some academics until the mid-1970s. The term was meant to convey a stereotype that Asian Americans were becoming economicallyRead MoreWho Is An Asian American?1566 Words   |  7 PagesWho is an Asian American? The name â€Å"Asian American† holds different meaning to people. According to Tamura (2003), â€Å"Asian American is a relatively recent term that was first used by non-Asians and then adopted by Asian American themselves during the late 1960s in the heyday of ethnic and political activism† [†¦] (Tamura, 2003). The simplest definition of an Asian American is an American with an Asiatic background. Therefore, making assumptions about an Asian would be absurd because the term is broadRead MoreAsian Americans And The American Dream1442 Words   |  6 Pagesthe status of the American Dream is mostly beneficial for citizens in the country that have certain connections and higher education. Overall, the American Dream is dying and it is much harder for a person now to achieve it if he or she does not have any direct connections or a higher education and a more well-off economic standpoint. The standards in the society has made is much more difficult for minorities to face their obstacles to pursue their dreams. Over 44% of the American population todayRead MoreAsian Americans And African Americans994 Words   |  4 PagesBy the time of a century ago, Asian America has been considered lazy and stupid. So â€Å"model minority† were described Asian Americans as a hard-working, Well-educated, successfully minority race. But otherwise it’s not the truly idea to believe in positive model minority because sometimes it’s also negative. It’s happened to most of Asian Americans and they realized that, at the start point it’s been 100 percent positive, but when you go along, then it will turn to be negative and sometime it ’s hurtingRead MoreAsian American Stereotype1112 Words   |  5 Pagesstereotypes of Asian Americans have dramatically changed from being viewed as uneducated poor laborers to being characterized as successful educated minority. It has changed from negativity to positivity. According to the article â€Å"Outwhiting the whites†: An examination of the persistence of Asian Americans model minority discourse, Asian Americans were stereotyped as the â€Å"Yellow Peril† before. It was a fear that Asian Americans were going to take power in America. Japanese Americans had lost a lotRead MoreAfrican Americans And Asian Americans1878 Words   |  8 PagesThough Asians make up the largest portion of the world’s population, Asian-Americans are one of the least represented minority groups within the United States. Out of an estimated 318 million people living in the U.S., Asians account for 5.2%, or approximately 17 million people. Compared to Hispanics at 54 m illion and African-Americans at 42 million, Asians and/or Asian-Americans are vastly outnumbered by the two other major minority groups and even more so by the majority, European-Americans. Even

To What Extent Are Democracy and Dictatorship Different Free Essays

To what extent are democracy and dictatorship different? In order to answer this question we must first examine the generic basis of both democracy and dictatorship separately. The term democracy originates from the Greeks, and is defined as â€Å"rule of the people† coming from the words â€Å"demos† (people) and â€Å"kratos† (power). It was coined around 400 BCE, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens. We will write a custom essay sample on To What Extent Are Democracy and Dictatorship Different? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Commonly, two forms of democracy are recognised, these being direct democracy and representative democracy. Direct democracy was used in Athenian democracy, and is a system in which people vote on policy initiatives directly. Many US states and Switzerland still use this system often. Representative democracy refers to the system which is in place in Britain today. It is a variation of democracy founded on the principle of elected people representing a group of people. The term dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is rules by an individual. For some scholars, a dictatorship is a form of government that has power to govern without consent of those being governed. As is the case with democracy, there are different kinds of dictatorship. An authoritarian dictatorship is one kind whereby the power the govern is held by a small group of elite politicians. A military dictatorship is a form of government wherein the political power resides with the military. We can start to answer this question by looking at the way in which governments are formed in democracy and in dictatorship. We, in Britain live in a democracy whereby every five years we hold in general election in which everyone over 18 years of age can vote for who they would like to be their local MP. Whichever party wins more than 50% of the MPs in the House of Commons can then go on to form a government. We, therefore as citizens of this country, have handed over our sovereignty and elected the people who will go on to govern us for the next five years until we retake out sovereignty to hold another election. We have therefore given the government the right to govern via consent. In a dictatorship however, in many cases the people haven’t given those in power, the right to be there. Figures such s Lenin, who believed in a ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ in Marxist terms, seized power of their government rather than being elected by the people. In the case of Lenin this was after a revolution and due to the failings of the Provisional Government the Bolsheviks were able to take advantage of their weaknesses and, through violent means, take control the the country. However, we must not make the assumption that all dictators have come to power via the means of force and violence. An example of a notorious dictator’s rise to power without the use of an overthrow of the then government, is Hitler. He was democratically elected to become Chancellor of Germany, and then used his power in that role to change the laws surrounding the limits on his power, thus securing him as a dictator. From this we can see that the means in which a governments in democracy and dictatorships are formed are different, and can in some situations be the complete opposite of each other. The means in which a government maintains authority in a democracy and in a dictatorship, show one of the many differences between these two forms of governing. Traditionally, in a democracy, a government would use rational and proportional means of policing and punishment. For example, in Britain as a democracy we do not have situations where people are persecuted for expressing their religious views and beliefs. However, across the world, particularly in the Middle East, there are dictatorships where you may be persecuted for your beliefs, whether they be religious, political or cultural. These places have regimes often known as â€Å"police states†, whereby people are constantly under the surveillance of the authorities, and the government controls the police and whole ‘justice’ system, making these countries less democratic. Although we can clearly identify stark differences between democracy and dictatorship, there are certain groups of thinkers who believe that the two are actually not as different as it would appear on paper. There are those who follow Karl Marx’s thoughts and beliefs that actually democracy, in particular capitalist democracies are simply bourgeois dictatorships, whereby the middle classes are exploiting the working lasses, who he refers to as the proletariat. There is also the question of the ‘tyranny of the majority’, an issue raised by many philosophers, from Aristotle in Ancient Greece, to Alexis de Tocqueville and Friedrich Nietzsche. This issue envisions a scenario in which decisions made by a majority place its interests so far above those of an individual or minority group as to constitute active oppression, comparable to that of tyrants and despots. In many cases a disliked ethnic, religious or racial group is deliberately penalized by the majority element acting through the democratic process. Thus, from this theory, it can be suggested that there are elements of democracy which actually allow dictatorships amongst groups of people, to be formed. It would most certainly be unwise to compare previous Birtish Primeministers like Margeret Thatcher to notorious dictators such as Chairman Mao or Adolf Hitler, but we must also consider the theory of an elective dictatoship. It would most certainly be unwise to compare previous British prime ministers like Margaret Thatcher to notorious dictators such as Chairman Mao or Adolf Hitler, but we must also consider the theory of an elective dictatorship This term coined by Lord Hailsham refers to the way in which some governments can be dominated, or dictated by the executive body within them, thus making them less democratic as less views of the people are being put forward for law making, instead, a small body of elite politicians are running effectively running the government. This along with a large majority in the House of Commons, such as the 1983 Conservative majority of ___? , means that the MPs in the Commons can no longer fulfil their role of representing their constituents effectively as a dictatorship of the governing party may mean that any law proposed by the executive is very likely to be passed due to the huge majority. On paper, and in theory, democracy and dictatorship may seem worlds apart in their basis of power, how authority is maintained and how government is created, but in actual fact, when taking into account the thoughts of leading philosophers and academics, we can clearly draw some parallels between these two forms of governing. Elements of one can often be found in the other, although fundamentally the main aims of democracy are often not met in dictatorship. The freedoms and liberties of the individual are often not emphasised in a dictatorship. However, after studying the different elements of democracies around the world, I don’t think it would be accurate to say that these freedoms and liberties of the people are even being fulfilled in democracies. How to cite To What Extent Are Democracy and Dictatorship Different?, Essay examples

Music and teenagers free essay sample

Many people get their attitudes, fashions, and way f living in the songs they love to hear. 2. The positive side of listening to music is the listeners are inspired of the music they have heard and it helps them to overcome their melancholy. For others, music is their partner and their life. However, in the negative side, some listeners will develop bad influences and some were emotionally affected by the music. They can feel the sympathy of the lyrics and the worst part is, they will commit suicide. 3. Yes, some teenagers who were addicted to music will have their favorite artist, band, and genre.They will apply it to themselves just like the way of paving of their favorite band. Just like their attitude and most of all their fashion. They will dress up and even talk and walk just like their favorite band. Music is the art of arranging tones in an orderly sequence so as to produce a unified and continuous composition. We will write a custom essay sample on Music and teenagers or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 1 In reality, music does not have any concrete meaning. Music has different meanings for different people. Music is unique in each persons life. To a musician, it is their life. Music is their passion.For others, music is a hobby, and a past time. Music is something that arouses interest and is pleasurable. The Casual fan may learn about music, how to read music, how to sing or how to play musical instruments, but they do not have the all uncompromising passion a musician possesses. Music is a mean of relaxation for some, while others simply enjoy listening to the sounds, melodies and rhythms that music brings to their ears, minds, and heart. 2 Music is not often called the universal language. Words may describe times passing but music enacts it for us.. .. Hen this level of musical discourse becomes accessible to you, there is always so much to hear. Because music is reformed unstoppably in time, it will always invoke questions no matter what the style or era. The answers will sometimes be clear; sometimes grey and us beetle; but the pathway to exploring them is concrete and can be done by anyone . These abstract issues can be palpably emotional. Attentive listening leads us to the music inside ourselves. 3 All teenagers love music. Music is a shared bond between teenagers. It gives them an identity, a feeling of belonging to a group. The thing about music is that it sends out an either good or bad message that will have a big impact on kids actions and ideas. Unlike times in the past music is creating a gap and separating kids into groups. Now you can tell if a group Of teenagers listens to rap music or not. Just by the way they walk, talk, and dress. And most Goth and Memo music get kids to cut and try to kill themselves. Crime, drugs, suicides, and teen pregnancy are all influenced by music. 5 Suicide is a theme that is found in the lyrics of many genres of music, including traditional, folk, heavy metal, country and opera.Content analysis of country songs reveals several themes that can foster suicide, including marital trite or dissolution, alcohol abuse, financial strain or being exploited at work, and social isolation. 6 Many people who listen to heavy metal also listen to other types of music. These may also have lyrics concerning suicide, despair or isolation. It would thus be difficult to pinpoint specific genre as being the direct and sole cause of suicide. Lyrics have been taken out of the context of an entire song to support arguments that heavy metal music incites suicide.The way in which an adolescent interprets the lyrics may be the opposite of what the artist has intended. 7 Heavy metal carries on traditional countercultures concerns with social problems, but it departs from earlier rock music that does not offer hope or solutions for solving such problems. 8 Heavy Metal music more often seems to become a problem for adolescents who are already struggling with feelings of alienation. These adolescents may also lack of positive role models, come into repeated conflict with authorities, abuse alcohol and drugs; and have a family history of violence and/or suicide. Far from placing adolescents at risk of suicide, heavy metal music may have protective functions for some. 4% of a sample of male heavy metal fans who were interviewed said that their music served a purgative function, that is it helped to relieve feelings of anger. The music mirrored the emotional volatility brought on by the usual crises and conflicts of adolescence. 10 Music not only affects teenagers but can begin to define them of people and delineate them from others. The type of music you like becomes a critical factor by which the person retains identity. Music becomes the dictator of what clothes you wear, what people you associate with, what people you will hate, sometimes lattice and or moral beliefs you will have. Take for instance people who listen to rap predominantly. Such people will begin to dress in a certain gangs fashion. A person who listens to Goth music might wear all black, paint their finger nails black, enjoy walking in the cemeteries, pretend to be witch or warlocks, and act jaded.The same with people who listens to Memo music, they like to be alone and their feelings will become deeply emotional and sometimes they like to kill themselves. A dude who listens to metal music will largely be defined by the type of metal he or she enjoys most. Music has always been a way of expressing feelings and thoughts. Learning how to sing or play musical instruments helps in a lot of positive ways. Music helps relieve the stress of everyday life. Many people, who play music and listens to music including myself, use it to escape the troubles that we face.Sometime when I feel have some problems or when I am having a bad day, listening to music makes me feel better. I become so wrapped up in the music that I forget everything else. Im sure that other teenagers feel the same way. For most musicians, playing their instrument is much more than a hobby, it is a passion. Therefore, in regards to my topic, whether a person is feeling happy or sad, frustrated or confused, even alone, music is always there a constant in a persons life that he or she can relate to music definitely affects people in many ways, but it does not control a persons actions.

Australian Street Crime

For a number of decades, street crime remains one of the most volatile, persistent and an undoubtedly intractable issue in our societies. Despite this imminence of the issue significance attached to it is negligible. From a superficial perspective, the problem may sound criminological but the reality is that all stakeholders have failed to keep the menace within acceptable limits despite favorable conditions been availed1.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Australian Street Crime specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Every age produces its public enemy though such enemies have a habit of changing. According to Hallsworth, the street robber was the public enemy number one in the United Kingdom in 20022. Does this mean such people never existed in Britain before? The answer is a loud no. The only explanation to this is that they existed but they were never profiled with such vengeance as was the case later. Today nobody i s preoccupied with street criminals. Its anxiety has been replaced by white-collar gangs3. Does this presuppose that there has been a decline in street crime or are the concerned parties playing the politics of the ostrich? This paper attempts to bring into the perspective the phenomenon of street crime, its causes and probable measures of presentation with Australia as the reference point. Before embarking on a journey to unearth the dynamics of street crime, it is paramount to understand the whole concept of crime. From a Marxian perspective, crime occurrence can be attributed to a set of social and economic conditions4. Therefore, the nature and extent of crime depends on the organization of the society. As such, it follows suit that crime, and to be specific street crime, must be analyzed in the context of how it is related to the society as a whole but not in isolation5. The root cause of all crimes may be pinned down as economic deprivation6 As such, it is expected that crime rates should increase with a deterioration of economic conditions-at least from an empirical standpoint. However, this is not a blanket theory since it does not apply always. This is because not all people who are poor or unemployed engage in crime. Some of the people who commit serious or chronic crimes are economically privileged. If these corporate or white collar criminals do not lack the basic necessities of life to warrant them an indulgence in criminal behavior, it is obvious that there are factors at stake. Many theories have been advanced to explain the existence of crime in our society but few have contained enough thresholds to warrant a universal adaptation. Though the Marxian school of thought came close to providing a sound reasoning, it has been challenged by other theories like the feminist and the structuralism ones7.Advertising Looking for essay on criminology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One structuralis t, Richard Quinney, in his attempt to outline a cause for the existence of crime, he identified two types of crime-crime of repression and that of resistance8. The first one represents those that are committed by the state or ruling class so as to maintain their position of influence. The last category comprises of crimes committed by lower-class persons. As a result, inequality between classes is expected to cause an increase in predatory and personal crimes-street crime been a member of the latter group. It is crucial to therefore study the trends in street crime in the context of an opened mind putting into consideration the many factors that at play. It is only then that governments and the society at large will be in a better position to fight and bring the menace into controllable levels. The starting point of demystifying the myths surrounding for purposes of this paper will be to examine what comprises it. Though not a standard Home Office term, street crime is usually taken to imply a combination of robbery and snatch theft. The robbery may be of either personal or commercial nature9. This definition is important as addresses some of the popular beliefs that street crime entails those petty crimes like pick pocketing and the like while leaving out the big picture. It also busts the belief that the crime is usually linked to street children (Home Office)10. Australia is a fairly peaceful country crime wise. However, it is characterized by such crimes like human trafficking, illegal drug trade and human smuggling. In addition, street crime has always been part of the Australian culture11. The problem is not given the significance it deserves and is usually overridden by other serious crimes like homicides with the state offering short term measure like early closure of entertainment places. As Rob White, an environmental criminologist notes, the menace cannot be curbed by instant coffee solutions but by understanding the broader cultural context in whic h the crimes occur12. Australia has a track record of addressing issues through a once-and for-all mechanism. Why then has the issue of street crime eluded the government and the wider society for so long? It managed to tackle the issue of road accidents and having been leading the world in this, why are they finding it difficult to fight street crime? The problem lies with the mode of fighting. They deal with the symptoms instead of the causes. What then are these causes of street crime? In a nutshell, the causes of street crime can be viewed as a case of the society eating its own. This is because the perpetrators of the crime come from the same society that the victims hail from. Alluding to an earlier proposition, street crime occurs against a backdrop of many factors some which are social, economical or political in nature13. Socially, there are a number of reasons that have led to a rise in street crime in Australia. One of these reasons is children neglect and abuse. Research has shown that neglected or abused children commit more crimes later in life than others. The victims of this abuse or neglect find their new home in the street and crime becomes their livelihood.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Australian Street Crime specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Due to the inequalities meted out to them early in life, these people grow up with such anti-social behavior and will pass it to their offspring – if at all they happen to raise one. In reality, it becomes a vicious cycle of violence and criminals. The children find a consolation in the street- a home away from the hell-like conditions that they grew up associating with their homes14. This hardens their lives and they end up ganging up with others who have faced similar fate forming gangs15. Therefore, the social fabric is a very crucial social factor as far as provision of criminal opportunity is concerned. Family conflict s force the youth to take desperate steps in their lives as well as join bad peer groups who initiate them into criminal activities and before they know it, they are so deep into it that the prospect of leaving the practice is brushed aside as an almost impossible16. Another factor that has led to the insurgent of street crime in Australia is unemployment. The rate of unemployment stood at 5.1% by July 2011.As from 1978 to 2010, the rate had been averaging at 7.11% reaching an historical crest of 10.90% in December 1992 and a record low of 4.00% in February 200817. Though these statistics may seem optimistic, unemployment still remains the most persistent and devastating economic ills in Australia over the centuries. This is because its effects surpass material depravation to touch on issues to do with crime, poverty and family breakdown. Although Australia has been prosperous, unemployment among the youth has remained high. In 1993, Australia was ranked fifth in youth unemployment rate among thirteen OECD countries Muir K, Maguire A, Slack-Smith D Murray M18. The trend is explained by a number of factors. One of them is the shrinking job market brought. Since 1995, there as being a 6.9% decrease in full-time jobs available for the youth19. This trend has forced many youths to look for casual or part-time positions20. In this regard, is there any interplay between youth unemployment and crime or more precisely, street crime? Indeed studies have shown that there exists two links between the two. One of them links ennui and other situational factors to unemployment and therefore increasing avenues for engagement in crime. The other link is that if one cannot meet his or her wants and needs legitimately, it follows suit that they will be bound to seek illegitimate means to meet them. This apparently has been the case with Australian youth who engage in street crime to earn a living. When people think of crime, the catch word that rings into their minds is povert y. In that case, it will be scholarly unfair if this paper does not pay attention to this social factor for street crime. Australia is not a poor country per se but experiences relative poverty.Advertising Looking for essay on criminology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The phenomenon is found mostly with unemployed people, single parent families, and disabled people, indigenous Australians as well as immigrants and refugees. Around one in every eight children in Australia lives in poverty21. This a very high rate compared with other industrialized countries. The effects of poverty are unfathomable. They range from homelessness to poor health, malnutrition and crime22. As such, poverty may be viewed as the denominator against which most of the vices are rest. Unemployment stems from it because parents who cannot afford to take their children to school are forced to stay at home with their children and thus becoming illiterate. This leaves the victims with no option but to turn to the world of crime to meet their personal needs. The causes of street crime can be seen as labyrinth of economic and social disparities that exist not only in Australia but also in any society.23 Failure to address these disparities will mean that the problem will linger a round as long as humankind continues to exist. In its part, what is Australia doing to curb street crime? What are some of the measure it has deployed to bring the trend into manageable levels? As earlier hinted, the fight against street crime will not be won by instant coffee solutions. It requires a long term dedication to review the systems at stake as well as an overhaul of the whole social stratum. Below are some of the policies and programs that the Australian government is using to curb the menace. In its endeavor to prevent crime, the Australian government has resorted to a number of approaches. Though some of them have not worked, its efforts have not been altogether futile. One of these policies is the crime prevention through environmental design strategy. The strategy recognizes the need for designing and managing public and private space in ways discouraging criminal activity and thus encouraging community perceptions of their safety24. CPTED mainly puts into considerat ion the designers of particular areas, how the areas are defined in terms of border, maintenance and ownership as well as how well the design of the area is an encouragement to its intended function. Some of the key concepts given prominence in CPTED are lighting, safe routes, landscaping, sightlines, escape routes, entrapment spots, signage and movement predictors. In Australia, this program began in the cities of Norwood Payne ham, St. Peters and Campbell town in 199825. In 2003, the cities of Burnside Town of Walkersville and Prospect joined the program. Given the financial implications of this approach to crime prevention, it proves to be an expensive method and thus limited in application26. In Australia, it has only been limited to the above mentioned cities Eastern region due to a lack of funding27 Another opportunity reduction or situational approach that the Australian government has used in its fight against street crime is its introduction of methods limiting access to ca sh especially in Victoria. This initiative was aimed at deterring prospective robbers by rendering the TABS in betting shops less attractive targets. Time-locking cash boxes were introduced and a cash limit of 500 US Dollars set in each selling TABS drawer. The efforts saw a decline in crime between 20% and 48% when compared to other big commercial targets like banks. Elsewhere in New South Wales, criminal justice agencies introduced initiatives to reduce mort vehicle theft in Sydney, ‘the car theft capital of the world’. The program incorporated a strategic assessment, planning and cooperation with private and public agencies as well as a publicity campaign. The aim of this policy was to educate the general public to make their cars more secure. It also aimed at luring insures to get rid of incentives for insurance hoax. After a year following the introduction of these measures, motor vehicle theft declined by more than 25% in New South Wales (Australian Governmentâ₠¬â„¢s Attorney Department28. Apart from the target hardening programs, the Australian government has also used other approaches in its fight to street crime. These include the social or developmental approach. In Queensland, the government began the Peace Builders program with an aim to reduce bullying, violence and other anti-social behavior via a school-based involvement. The program endeavored to increase children’s resilience as well as reinforcing positive behavior. The strategy drew its participants from a school in the south-eastern Queensland community characterized by high levels of family breakdown, unemployment and inner-cultural tension Australian Government’s Attorney Department29. It addressed risk factors linked to anti-social behaviour at individual, school and community level. In the second of the introduction of the programme, anti-social behavior fell, parent and student satisfaction increased while police call-outs decreased from 25 to 4. 30 Once ag ain, Queensland is home to another social approach to the fight against crime through community justice groups. These are Kowanyama and Palm Island community justice groups31. Before the inception of these community development programs, family violence, drug abuse and property crime were highly prevalent. The groups consist of members of the indigenous population with the support of a community development officer as well community consultation32. They provide a mechanism in which the communities can deal social and justice issues with respect to customary laws and practices using conflict resolution, sanctioning and link between criminal justice agencies and the community. After its initiation, the program saw a reduction of personal and property crime, decline in juvenile criminal activity as well as effectiveness in sanctioning anti-social conduct and resolving family rows33. In addition to the above proactive means of fighting street crime the Australian has tried to bring the menace down by deploying a number of reactive measures like gun control. This was particularly intensified after an incident on 26th April 1996 in which a disturbed young man armed with a gun shot dead 35 citizens in Tasmania34. This necessitated the stalled gun reform process35. Since the incident, there has been considerable support from the public and politicians to restrict gun availability. The government also embarked on a campaign to buy back licensed weapons and to grant amnesty on unlicensed firearms. In conclusion, the menace of street crime in Australia will remain battle yet to be won. This is because as mentioned earlier, most of the tactics the government is using to bring the issue into manageable rates are not fool-proof. There is need for focus on fighting the causes not the symptoms. Proactive measures will only prove futile in the long run as the criminal will always benchmark themselves against any new strategy that the policy makers adopt. That is why in the mea ntime, the battles against street crime in Australia is a wait-and see matter as the menace will remain as inescapable as death. References Australian Government’s Attorney Department. Crime Prevention, November 2004. Retrieved from http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/www/Ncphome.nsf/Page/9CB89639A8BF1D1BCA256 C2900198AA0 Barry G. Youth in crisis: Gangs, territoriality and violence. Oxon: Routledge, 2011.jpg 18 Home Office. ‘Crime reduction’. Street crime. Retrieved from http://tna.europarchive.org/20100413151441/crimereduction.homeoffice.gov.uk/Street crime/streetcrime01.htm Indermaur D. Crime Research Center, University of Western Australia. Situational  Prevention of violent crime: Theory and practice in Australia, 1999. Retrieved at http://www.crc.law.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/50334/Situational_Prevention_of_Volent_Crime.pdf Muir K, Maguire A, Slack-Smith D Murray M. Youth unemployment in Australia: a  contextual, governmental and organisational perspective, November 2003. Retrieved at http://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/webdata/resources/files/Youth_unemploymen_AMP_ Report_November03.pdf Scheingold SA. The politics of street crime: Criminal process and cultural obsession. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991. Schwartz MD Hatty SE. Controversies in critical criminal. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co., 2003. White R Cuneen C. Social Class, youth crime and justice, 2006. Retrieved at http://www.uk.sagepub.com/stout/02-Muncie-YCJ Ch%2002.pdf Footnotes 11. MD Schwartz SE Hatty. Controversies in critical criminal. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co., 2003. Pg 12 2 MD Schwartz SE Hatty pg 10. 3 Ibid 4 Ibid 5 ibid 6 Ibid 7 SA Scheingold. The politics of street crime: Criminal process and cultural obsession. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991. 8 R White C Cuneen. Social Class, youth crime and justice, 2006. Retrieved at 9 Home Office. Crime reduction. Street crime. Retrieved from http://tna.europarchive.org/20100413151441/cri mereduction.homeoffice.gov.uk/streetcrime/streetcrime01.htm 10 Ibid 11 G Barry. Youth in crisis: Gangs, territoriality and violence. Oxon: Routledge, 2011.pg 183 12 R White C Cuneen. Social Class, youth crime and justice, 2006. Retrieved at http://www.uk.sagepub.com/stout/02-Muncie-YCJ-Ch%2002.pdf pg 13 13 R White C Cuneen. pg 12 14 R White pg 14. 15G Barry. Youth in crisis: Gangs, territoriality and violence. Oxon: Routledge, 2011.pg 183 16 Ibid 17 Muir K, Maguire A, Slack-Smith D Murray M. Youth unemployment in Australia: a contextual, governmental and organisational perspective, November 2003. Retrieved at http://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/webdata/resources/files/Youth_unemployment_AMP_ Report_November03.pdf 18 Ibid 19 K Muir, A Maguire Slack-Smith M Murray. Youth unemployment in Australia: a  Contextual, governmental and organizational perspective, November 2003. Retrieved at http://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/webdata/resources/files/Youth_unemploymen 20 Ibid 21 Ibid 22 White R Cuneen C pg 16 23 Ibid 24 D Indermaur. Crime Research Center, University of Western Australia. Situational prevention of violent crime: Theory and practice in Australia, 1999. Retrieved at   http://www.crc.law.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/50334/Situational_Prevention_of_Violent_C rime.pdf- pg 23. 25 Ibid 26 D Indermaur- pg 24 27 Ibid 28 Australian Government’s Attorney Department. Crime Prevention, November 2004. Retrieved from http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/www/Ncphome.nsf/Page/9CB89639A8BF1D1BCA256C29001 98AA0 pg 4 29 Ibid 30 Australian Government’s Attorney Department -pg 7 31 Ibid 32 Ibid 33 Australian Government’s Attorney Department pg 9. 34 Australian Government’s Attorney Department pg 12. 35 Ibid This essay on Australian Street Crime was written and submitted by user Diana A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Requisitos del acta de nacimiento para Inmigracin

Requisitos del acta de nacimiento para Inmigracin Si le han pedido un acta  de nacimiento o debe presentarlo durante la tramitacià ³n de una peticià ³n o solicitud migratoria para Estados Unidos, es posible que sienta inquietud porque desconoce los requisitos que debe cumplir el documento. No se preocupe, este artà ­culo resuelve todas las dudas. Se aclara quà © informacià ³n debe contener el acta de nacimiento para ser admitido por las autoridades migratorias. Tambià ©n si debe estar traducido y/o notarizado y quà © hacer cuando es  imposible conseguir uno. Y es que si se saben las reglas no es complicado seguir sin problemas con la tramitacià ³n que se est gestionando. Antes de empezar, comentar que un acta de nacimiento se puede llamar en algunos paà ­ses certificado  o partida de nacimiento. En todo caso, es lo mismo y aquà ­ los tres nombres se utilizan indiferentemente. Situaciones para las que se pide un acta de nacimiento Lo cierto es que pueden ser muy variadas pero por lo general tiene lugar en tres tipos de trmites: cuando un ciudadano americano debe acreditar su nacionalidad es uno de los documentos admitidos cuando se ha nacido en Estados Unidos. Asà ­ se solicita una copia.para los trmites para obtener una visa de inmigrante (tambià ©n conocida como green card o tarjeta de residencia). Este requisito se pide tanto en los ajustes de estatus (I-485) como en los procedimientos consulares.Y, por à ºltimo, en la tramitacià ³n del I-9, para verificar que se es elegible para trabajar. Aunque puede suceder que se solicite un acta de nacimiento para trmites relacionados con las visas no inmigrantes, estos casos no son frecuentes. Requisitos del acta de nacimiento extranjero para Inmigracià ³n Es frecuente que las autoridades migratorias o consulares soliciten un acta de nacimiento a personas extranjeras como parte de la tramitacià ³n de peticiones o solicitudes. En estos casos, es  preciso presentar una copia del certificado emitido por otro paà ­s que debe incluir todos los siguientes requisitos: Nombre y apellidos completos, sin incluir inicialesFecha y lugar de nacimientoNombre de los padresSello de la autoridad que emite el documento como, por ejemplo, el Registro CivilAnotacià ³n de la autoridad que lo emite en el que se especifica que es una copia del original No se admite un acta de nacimiento emitido por el consulado o la embajada de un paà ­s en los Estados Unidos.  ¿Tiene que estar notarizado? Para casos relacionados con la obtencià ³n de la tarjeta de residencia (green card) el certificado de nacimiento no tiene que estar notarizado, ni certificado ni apostillado.  Adems, no es necesario el original, basta con una simple copia (el sello y la firma tienen que ser orginales). Para otro tipo de trmites, seguir fielmente las instrucciones sobre requerimientos, ya que pueden ser diferentes.  ¿Tiene que estar traducido al inglà ©s? Por à ºltimo, si el documento no est en inglà ©s hay que traducirlo. No es necesario que la traduccià ³n la realice un traductor certificado. Basta que la realice una persona con buenos conocimientos del inglà ©s y del espaà ±ol y que asà ­ lo afirme y se identifique en una declaracià ³n jurada (affidavit). Se puede seguir este modelo de carta. Lo que sà ­ es imprescindible es que dicha traduccià ³n la realice una persona distinta al beneficiario de la peticià ³n migratoria. Tampoco puede realizarla el patrocinador de una  green card.  ¿Quà © hacer cuando no hay acta de nacimiento o contiene errores? En casos muy concretos y extraordinarios no ser posible presentar el acta de nacimiento porque o bien nunca existià ³ o bien los archivos en los que se encontraba se han destruido o no es posible encontrar la anotacià ³n original. Incluso porque el registro del nacimiento no se realizà ³ durante el primer aà ±o de vida. Cuando asà ­ suceda las autoridades de inmigracià ³n permiten presentar documentacià ³n secundaria para probar el nacimiento. En primer lugar, hay que dirigirse al Registro Civil o a la oficina oficial que en la actualidad lleve este asunto en el lugar donde la persona nacià ³ y solicitar que se emita un certificado de falta de registro en el que se seà ±ale claramente que se ha buscado la documentacià ³n solicitada y que no se ha encontrado. Y a continuacià ³n se puede acompaà ±ar tal certificado de falta de registro con evidencias adicionales, siendo la preferida una declaracià ³n jurada de una persona - puede ser un familiar- que hubiera tenido conocimiento directo del nacimiento. Si no es posible, pueden admitirse rà ©cords como el de bautismo o incluso informes mà ©dicos o escolares. El Departamento de Estado publica una lista de documentos que pueden presentarse como evidencia secundaria de nacimiento y que puede cambiar de paà ­s a paà ­s, por lo que de darse el caso es recomendable consultar directamente con la oficina consular cuya jurisdiccià ³n se extienda al lugar en el que tuvo lugar en nacimiento. Informacià ³n especà ­fica para mexicanos en Estados Unidos Algunos estados mexicanos permiten solicitar el acta de nacimiento por internet. Estos son los pasos a seguir. La vida que espera como residente permanente Ya que muchos de los trmites para los que se solicita un certificado de nacimiento estn relacionados con una peticià ³n de green card es conveniente recordar que el  estatus de residente no es igual al de un ciudadano. Y que la residencia es, sin duda, un privilegio y, como tal, va acompaà ±ada de una serie de obligaciones que hay que cumplir.   Una gran forma de conocer los derechos y las obligaciones y asegurarse de que se conoce todo lo imprescindible para conservar la tarjeta de residencia es completar con à ©xito este test de respuestas mà ºltiples. Un modo fcil y rpido de adquirir informacià ³n fundamental.

Henry Kissinger Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Henry Kissinger - Essay Example ("Henry") Kissinger's intensive embarkation on a "shuttle diplomacy" in the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel, Egypt, and Syria helped mediate the Arab-Israeli conflict that had been going on for a long time. ("Henry") Because of this, politicians from Egypt had called him as the 'magician' for being able to come up with disengagement agreements that separated the Israeli and the Arab armies. ("Henry The Nobel") He had been successful in ending the war between these nations; however, there was an even greater and bigger hostility among these nations that was eventually lifted up. The peace process that he has negotiated among them was short-lived that his role was further criticized and questioned, specifically his intentions at bringing about the said 'liberation' between the Arabs and the Israelis. Having fled from Nazi, Germany under Hitler's administration, Kissinger created his own name in the United States as a Harvard University professor of government and international affairs in the 50s and 60s. ("American") He also joined the US Army before that and became an interpreter and intelligence officer in Europe. It was after his service in the army that he was soon the most brilliant professor in Harvard University. ("Henry") His unprecedented ability in interpreting foreign policies enabled him to foretell the necessary responses that Americans should perform in order to become at par with its international relations, as well as balance its power in the worldwide context. Kissinger lectured Americans about moralism that encourages them to a more realistic approach in dealing with all its foreign affairs and policies. Prominent personalities such as John F. Kennedy was as well impressed by his realistic views and policies, with whom he eventually served as a part-time policy adviser behind Kennedy's "flexible response" strategy that characterized the US strategy that promotes and maintains both the conventional and the nuclear forces against the attacks of the Communists instead of a nuclear retaliation that would affect nations and people held as victims. Kissinger also served the Johnson administration as a part-time foreign adviser ("Henry") When Nixon was elected President of the United States in 1968, he appointed Kissinger as his full-time national security adviser. Their team-up has had many suspicions such that the joint of an unlikely two people in the government implied something not at all favourable. Time magazine even described their collaboration as an "improbable partnership" because of their two opposing personalities. Nixon's "old-fashioned, secretive, aloof and over-simplified rhetoric" character did not seem to fit with Kissinger's "urbane intelligence" ("Henry") The Nixon-Kissinger team had worked together to re-shape the style and substance of the United States foreign affairs. Together, the two had work closely in addressing the different international issues that are tied to the US through Kissinger's realist strategies and policies. Together, they had both achieved their goals in the international affairs. ("Henry") From then on, Kissinger was among the most popular and the most controversial personalities in the US government. Being the national security adviser to Nixon's administration, he had concentrated on gaining power for the United

Is global warming due to human actions and can human race take actions Research Paper

Is global warming due to human actions and can human race take actions to stop global warming - Research Paper Example Facts and discussion presented in this paper are meant to illuminate the reality of the claim that â€Å"agricultural and industrial revolution, land-use change, and an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations are all such human actions which have raised global warming rate and acts like recycling, energy conservation, and tree plantation can help reduce this.† (Drallos, 2009) lays stress on the fact that human activity has played a significant role in exponentially increasing the rate of global warming owing to the increased burning of fossil fuels and industrial emissions which increases the CO2 gas concentration in the atmosphere and this plays a direct role in increasing the Earth’s temperature. Actually, the human population has been increasing so tremendously over the past many years that there seems no apparent end to the ongoing use of land, energy, and fossils, thus environmental scientists tend to be at loss of applying any useful strategy for controlling thi s dramatic and urgent environmental emergency.

The Lewis And Clark Expedition Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Lewis And Clark Expedition - Term Paper Example The task for President Jefferson was now to get familiarized with the territory itself, especially the western front. To accomplish this task, President Jefferson chose his personal secretary Meriwether Lewis who was not only a reliable and intelligent man, but also possessed skills of a frontiersman. Meriwether Lewisin in turn selected one of his most reliable friends and an exceptional frontiersman and draftsman, William Clark, and made him the co-commanding captain of the expedition. The trust that Lewis had in Clark’s abilities was remarkable given the fact that Clark was not highly ranked by the government itself for such expeditions1. There were two reasons why President Jefferson wanted this expedition to take place. The first obvious reason was that he wanted to discover the actual territory itself so that the boundaries could be established. The second reason was that he wanted Lewis to discover the water link between the Missouri and Columbia rivers. This water netwo rk would link the Pacific Ocean with the Mississippi system of rivers which in turn would open new access routes for trade and commerce. EXPEDITION The expedition officially started from the summer of 1804 from Camp Wood in St. Louis. Until then, the members were developing the strategies for the expedition. That summertime and during the fall the group of voyagers propelled and dragged themselves towards the north and more precisely, to the northwest on the Missouri River. The post which they reached before the advent of winter was the Fort Mandan post, a trading post, where they set up their camps and waited till the winter had passed away. During this time they prepared for the journey ahead. When the winter had finally passed and as spring of 1805 was approaching, the journey began once again. They moved on further up towards the Missouri to Montana, to what is presently called Three-Forks. The path which they chose was the boundary of the western front along the Jefferson River . This helped to serve the purpose of discovering the new terrain. The new route brought the explorers to the threshold of Shoshone Indians who were very well acquainted with the terrain and specialized in crossing the mountains with their horses. The significant people whom they met were a French fur trader and his Shoshone Indian wife named Sacagawea which means ‘bird woman’. Both these people agreed to guide them through and Sacagawea was especially helpful in establishing contact with the Indians through acting as a translator. At first, the Indians were frightened to see the explorers, but because of Sacagawea, the connection was made rather easily and the Indians agreed to help them. The Indians provided them with supplies and other essential stuff. The other benefit of Sacagawea was that because she was a woman it signified the fact that the explorers were not there for war. Generally, women were not taken alongside in the situation of war. Thus, the presence of Sacagawea meant that the explorers did not mean war. With the help of the Indians, the explorers made their way up to the Bitterroot Mountains. Without the horses it would have been difficult to pass through the mountains. There, the difficulty they had to face was that they had to now travel downriver from the Bitterroot

American Court System: Design and Functions

American Court System: Design and Functions In the United States, in keeping with our bicameral system of government, we have a dual court system consisting of State and Federal courts. While each system is self-contained it is possible, though infrequent, for questions of State law to finish at the United States Supreme Court. The systems and functions of the state and federal courts roughly mirror each other. The state courts system serves both trial and appellate functions and in turn, the federal court system serves these purposes at the federal level. The Federal Courts may be divided into Article III courts, and non-Article III courts. Article III courts were established by/under Article III of the United States Constitution. The Court of International Trade, District Courts (94 in 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico), Courts of Appeals (12 geographic-based and another for the Federal Circuit), and the U.S. Supreme Court are all Article III courts. Non-Article III courts include Bankruptcy Courts, Tax Court, decisions by U.S. Magistrate Judges and Administrative Law judges (ALS) in various federal agencies. United States District Courts are trial courts of original jurisdiction for federal cases with mandatory appellant jurisdiction over rulings by non-Article III courts. They adjudicate all federal crimes as well as some civil law cases. All federal felony cases are the responsibility of U.S. Magistrate judges. State Courts vary considerably from state to state. In a broad sense, they all follow the pattern, in ascending order, of state minor trial courts, state major trial courts, state intermediate appellate courts, state high courts of last resort (also known as state supreme courts), and the United States Supreme Court. State minor trial courts include Municipal courts, Justice of the Peace courts and Magisterial District Courts. These courts serve as original jurisdiction courts for misdemeanor cases, both civil and criminal traffic violations and small civil claims. State major trial courts, which may also be known as Superior Courts, Courts of common pleas and District courts, are trial courts of general jurisdiction. They are often arranged by county or groups of counties, to hear felonies and some civil cases. They sometimes have jurisdiction over minor trial courts. State Intermediate Appellate Courts are used in forty out of fifty states. They have mandatory jurisdiction over rulings by the states major trial courts. It is rare for criminal appellants to win on appeal here. State high courts of last resort have both mandatory and discretionary jurisdiction over decisions by lower state courts. This court is a major policy maker for the state due to its position as the final decider on matters of state law. The United States Supreme Court (the High Court of Last Resort in the United States) is arguably the most powerful court in the world. It has absolute control over the cases it hears via its discretionary appellate jurisdiction over decisions made by the U.S. Courts of Appeals. It has jurisdiction over the highest state courts when a question of federal law, to include federal constitutional law, is at issue. Typically, less than a third of the cases heard by the countrys highest court are criminal cases. There are eight courts in the state of Alabama and three Federal districts. Alabama Court of the Judiciary oversees judicial officers and is assembled to hear complaints of the Judicial Inquiry Commission. Alabama Probate Courts deal with matters of probate and the governance of estates. Municipal courts in Alabama handle violations of city ordinances. District courts may be either criminal or civil. District civil courts handle small claims suits. District criminal courts handle state law violations, felonies, and misdemeanors. They can also accept a guilty plea in felony cases. Alabama Circuit Courts are state trial courts of general jurisdiction and have jurisdiction to hear civil and criminal cases. The Alabama Court of Criminal appeals presides over appeals in criminal cases. Civil appeals are the domain of the Alabama Court of Civil appeals. At the top of the hierarchy is the Alabama Supreme Court, the states court of last resort. District courts in Alabama are in the 11th Circ uit. They trial courts of original jurisdiction over federal cases. A criminal case that goes to trial may end up using trial, appellant and supreme courts. This basic structure and sequence is the same in both state and federal courts. Trial courts of general jurisdiction hear felonies and non-small claims civil cases. They may also have appellate jurisdiction over a states minor trial courts. A case may end at this level if the defendant is convicted and does not appeal, or if he is found innocent. Appellate courts have jurisdiction over decisions made by the major trial courts. Appellate courts do not rule on guilt or innocence but rather on whether the trial was conducted properly. It is rare for a defendant to win at the appellate level. If the decision of the appellate court is challenged the case will proceed to the State Supreme court, also known as the State court of last resort. Typically, the State Supreme Court hears only a few criminal cases annually. In order to move ahead to the United States Supreme Court, a case must include a questi on of federal law or federal constitutional law. All states do not have the same court design. Part of the purpose of a dual court system is to allow states the freedom to govern themselves and to be separate and independent of the federal government. This being the case, each state has developed its own court system and terminologies that serve the people of that state. While the overall structures of the court of one state may be similar to another/others, the fact that each state has its own unique laws guarantees variations in their court systems.

Essay --

I have learned that some cases go to trial pretty fast and then others take longer. I found that people can wait up to 9 years for trial and they still get convicted as guilty, but there are some that get their cases dismissed. Which is far because it did violated the right to speedy trial so which mean the case gets dismissed. In this first case Paton and Thomas vs. Supreme Court these two men were arrested for murder of Christopher Mc Crory. Morris Paton was 30 and Eugene Thomas was 33 this man was arrested for killing Christopher Mc Crory who was only 19. This case happened in New Orleans they were arrested December 23, 2001. At first the charges was capital murder which means they would have got the death penalty if convicted .The Cannizzaro's office knocked the charges down to second-degree murder, which carries mandatory life in prison upon conviction. These two men sat in jail for almost nine years waiting on a trial in 2001. Kathryn Sheely which is Paton’s lawyer says "The 8 1/2 year delay in this case has meant that justice can't be served," Sheely said Monday. "...

Belonging and Community

What is my current understanding of belonging and community? Well id have to say belonging is a big thing to teens and most people believe you have to dress a certain way or do something to fit into there apparent â€Å"community† but I definitely dont care what others think. Community to me is my friends family and people who mean alot to me. However that isnt the correct meaning, community is a bunch of people living in a certain area. I like to think my idea of a community is how it should be. How did I come to this understanding of my thinking? Well I dont fully know, its mainly values and thoughts that ive collected and made in my mind while growing older. Many things probably come from my dad hes a great man with alot of good values and he helped shaped who I am today. My mother also taught me alot of good values and also helped shaped who I am. I definitely can't give all the credit to them I have to give some of it to my friends to they have great ways of thinking and are very great people. Thats not all though alot of these ways of thinking come from me and thoughts I think in my head of how the world should be. What are views of others regarding belonging and community? Many of my peers think belonging means trying to be like someone else and fitting into something they like to think is a community. Why is community important in our society? Well without community what do we actually have? A whole lotta nothing really, without community how would we have friends like we have today? Id say without community were very isolated and us ourselves wouldnt be the people we are today. Do you feel we need to have communites? No, We dont absolutely need communities we can just be zombies wandering in no general life direction. Seriously I think we need communitys cause our friends, family and such they are there when you need them. What happens if you have non of that and are in a bad situation? Well you arent able to stay emotionally stable and lose any sort of ambition or heart you have. You crash and fall and have no one to pick you back up again least thats how I feel. If we didnt belong to a community what would we be missing out on? Id have to say we would be missing out on many different things. We would be missing out on our chances to socialize and not be so isolated. We would be missing out on learning certain morals and life choices. We would miss out on having many different friends who help us go through all the crap teenagers have to go through. I also think without communities alot of people wouldnt have much ambition to try hard I know I wouldnt at least. What kinds of communities do I belong to? I belong to quite a few communities if you go by the definition of others. Communities such as school, area district, working community. Thats not community to me though community to me would be my friends and family. I gotta say my group of friends is one of the most important types of community to me cause we have eachothers backs through thick and thin. Even more important family cause seriously without family where would you be right now? Not here thats for sure.

Legalizacion del aborto

Legalizacion del aborto Esquema argumentativo:LegalizaciÂÆ'Â ³n del abortoPregunta‚Â ¿Se debe legalizar una ley del aborto en casos de violaciÂÆ'Â ³n en nuestro paÂÆ'Â ­s?Posturas ante la polÂÆ'Â ©micaSi se debe legalizar la ley del abortoA1.- Evitar embarazos no deseados por violaciÂÆ'Â ³n: A nivel mundial, la primera experiencia sexual de las niÂÆ'Â ±as de las calles entre 10 y 14 aÂÆ'Â ±os es por violaciÂÆ'Â ³n. En Ecuador, el 69% de niÂÆ'Â ±as entre 10 y 15 aÂÆ'Â ±os han sufrido algÂÆ'Â ºn tipo de violencia de gÂÆ'Â ©nero, especialmente violencia sexual. Significa que las niÂÆ'Â ±as son violentadas en la casa, la escuela o en sus propias comunidades". "Sobre el embarazo adolescente, en los ÂÆ'Â ºltimos 20 aÂÆ'Â ±os los partos existentes en adolescentes han crecido en un 80% (Datos_del_Ministerio_de_Cordinacion_de_desarrollo, 2013)A2.- Evitar muertes a causa de abortos clandestinos: Se estima que en el paÂÆ'Â ­s se realizan 95.000 abortos al aÂÆ'Â ±o, de los cuales solo 200 son legales. Cada dÂÆ'Â ­a 260 mujeres deciden abortar y el hecho de no poder acceder a abortos seguros y legales las pone en situaciones de vulnerabilidad, riesgo y en muchos casos las expone a la muerte. (Ministerio_de_Salud_PÂÆ'Â ºblica_del_Ecuador)En Ecuador el aborto es un problema de salud pÂÆ'Â ºblica, pues el 18% de muertes son causadas por abortos clandestinos, constituyÂÆ'Â ©ndose en la segunda causa de mortalidad materna en el paÂÆ'Â ­s. (Fundacion_EducaciÂÆ'Â ³n_para_la_salud_reproductiva_(E.S.A.R.),Ben in Ecuador2012)A3.- La ley debe contener un amplio marco legal como ha sido establecido en 55 paÂÆ'Â ­ses donde se permite el aborto a base de fundamentos legales amplios, la ley usualmente estipula algunas condiciones como, por ejemplo, lÂÆ'Â ­mites de gestaciÂÆ'Â ³n, indicaciÂÆ'Â ³n, perÂÆ'Â ­odos de espera, requisitos de consentimiento, y restricciones. (Redaccion_Abortos, 2009)No se debe legalizar el abortoA1.- Se teme que el aborto caus e daÂÆ'Â ±os fÂÆ'Â ­sicos y emocionales a la mujer: Son innumerables las dificultades que se tienen para valorar adecuadamente los efectos psicopatolÂÆ'Â ³gicos...

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. essays

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. essays Martin Luther King Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia on January 15, 1929. He was the oldest son of the Rev. and Mrs. Martin Luther King. He was named Michael Luther after his father but he later change it to Martin Luther after the great church leader. Bad racial experiences made a long lasting impression on Martin. One day the parents of the boys Martin played with told him they could not play with him anymore because he was black and they were white. That broke his heart and he ran home and told his mother. His mother tried to explain to him why it happen,so she talk to him about racism and prejudice people. She told him that although blacks were no longer slaves, they were not really free. Martin grew up doing and liking what other kids like baseball, basketball and wrestling, but he liked reading most of all. He liked reading mostly about famous people in black historyand he liked to learn new words and use them. He also liked listing to his father and the other ministers use strong words when they preached. He wanted to follow in their footsteps. He made words his weapon for defense and offense. Martin once told his mother Im going to get me some big and strong words like the other preachers. When he was in high school, his skills to use words got him to win an oratorical contest. In September 1944, when he was only 15 years old, Martin entered Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. It was an all black school, and his father and grandfather went there. He knew his father wanted him to become a minister, but Martin was not sure that that was what he wanted to do. At first, he was not sure what his course of study he was going to do, but his experiences at Morehouse shaped his direction for life. It was not until after the meeting with Dr. Benjamin E. Mays, the college president; and Professor George Kelsey, head of the religion department; that he made up his mind. Marti ...

Some Patterns of Paragraph Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Some Patterns of Paragraph Development - Essay Example pets feed on a special diet that the owners fully budget for and higher personal veterinary doctors, who monitor and keep a close check on the pets’ health. The unique treatments highlighted are the exact treatments parents give their children to show affection and love to them. Since the pets receive treatment in a similar manner as children, it is, therefore, justifiable to conclude that people treat pets like surrogate children. In the social media for instance, there exist several pages created using the pet’s names for profiles. The owners of the pets buy gifts for them and organize anniversary celebrations after they die. Driving should be subject to utmost keenness and concentration. Most reckless drivers have caused more incidences of road accidents in several instances. The drivers fail to abide by the set traffic rules that should guide driving in the specific state. The failure to observe such rules causes accidents leading to massive loss of lives. For instance, some of the drivers take alcohol on duty. Alcohol reduces a driver’s alertness and visibility while driving. The result is an increasing in the number of traffic related accidents. Such accidents are avoidable by the drivers following the traffic rules to the latter. Deliberate assumption and ignorance of the regulation leading to loss of life is foolishness. Such foolishness makes the drivers’ actions unbelievable. Tobacco use is the principal cause of preventable health hazards, disabilities, and premature death in most states. Smoking leads to the development stroke and coronary heart diseases. Passive smokers are the indirect users of tobacco who inhale the exhaled smoke that the active smokers smoke out. Smoking leads to lung cancer and lung-related diseases like emphysema and bronchitis. The diseases have no definite treatment or cure, hence making tobacco a serious health peril. The passive smokers are at a higher risk of contracting the smoking related diseases and health

Ethics of the Sale of Body Parts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

Ethics of the Sale of Body Parts - Essay Example Becoming an organ donor is very simple as it is a choice offered when registering to vote, getting or renewing a driver’s license or ID card or placing this in your living will in most states. Laws pertaining to organ donation have been created in order to make the process one which does not discriminate and one which is available to all patients meeting specific health criteria rather than socio-economic status, ethnicity, or gender. Current Laws and Policy Regarding Organ Donation Unfortunately the supply of available organ us far from meeting current demands. It is estimated that over 90,000 people are on waiting lists and many have sought new and creative initiatives in order to increase the supply of organs (Georgetown Edu,2012). This field is still one of the most regulated fields in medical care. While there are federal laws there are also state laws which may be more specific or defined in policy. Those facilities who perform transplants are members or the Organ Procur ement Organization and as such have standards and policy which must be followed. Facilities which participate are considered a ‘host’ and are responsible for properly identifying, maintain and evaluating donors (HRSA, 2012). Authorization must be obtained and the organ must be properly handled to ensure it remains viable. In evaluating potential donors death must be pronounced and the donor's medical history must be screened for factors that would affect the function of the organ. There are very specific screening procedures for each organ or tissue which rules out many potential donors. Host facilities must participate in the sharing of the waiting list of candidates for the organ transplant. Referrals must come from specialty units and those placed on the waiting list are screened and rated with a priority. In order to prevent preferential treatment organs which are procured from transplant must be handled by a facility other than the one where the organ is to be rece ived. Those who are non-citizens of the United States may also be referred for the organ transplant. Policy prevents discrimination and in these cases, adherence to the policy preventing discrimination is to be followed. All potential donors a panel of tests are administered which include information such as electrolytes, serological testing, hepatitis screening, chest x-rays and numerous more. Each organ or tissue has more specified and specialized screening processes. Kidney donations must meet a defined matrix which includes factors such as age and creatinine. A history of hypertension will be evaluated and the cause of death must also be considered carefully. Blood types must match when transplanting kidneys and those with a zero-antigen match are usually selected first from the pool of candidates as they are less likely to experience total organ rejection. Information such as this is shared within Unit which is a compilation of all donors on the waiting list. Kidneys are one of the most transplanted organs with high success rates (HRSA-2, 2012). Kidneys are shared first to the most suitable local matches; if there are none then regions are defined which are next allocated the kidney; if a recipient is not found with the region a match is sought nationally. Liver transplant patients are scored with a different system weighs their mortality risk against the medical urgency of their condition. Candidates are assigned a status with points given for factors such as creatinine, bilirubin, age, stage of liver failure, renal failure, and Glasgow coma.

Health Care Reform Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Health Care Reform - Essay Example The most hotly contested issue in the debate is how best to gain universal coverage. While there is agreement that goal is for everyone to have health care coverage, there is much debate over the best mechanisms to achieve the goal. John Holahan, Director and Linda J. Blumberg, Senior Fellow of the Urban Institute Health Policy Center said â€Å"A public plan would not destroy the private insurance market but would make it more competitive and lead to the benefits associated with competition. Many private plans would remain attractive because of their ability to be responsive to consumer demands and to be innovative in care management. Public plans are attractive because they can offer better access to necessary care for diverse populations, have lower administrative costs, and have strong negotiating power with providers† (Karina, 2009). Dr. Sidney Wolfe of the public interest group Public Citizen disagreed, advocating for a single payer Health Care Reform stating â€Å"In s even states, ranging from Washington to Minnesota to Maine, they have tried what amounts to a mixture of a private and a public plan. And in none of the states has there been any sustained reduction in the number of uninsured. Its way too expensive† (Bill Moyers Journal, 2009). The Obama Plan: Stability & Security For All Americans contains a two part proposal with respect to universal coverage. Part 1 under President Obama’s Plan, is the creation of an insurance marketplace, â€Å"the Exchange† that would provide small businesses and individuals with access to a wider variety of choice. Part 2 under the President’s plan offers a more affordable option to those who can’t find affordable coverage in â€Å"the Exchange† or elsewhere (The White House, 2009). In essence, the Public Option would operate similarly to Medicare, except that anyone who cannot afford

Case Study †Art Critical and Historical Studies Essay Example for Free

Case Study – Art Critical and Historical Studies Essay Task Description: Select three artworks that use the physical environment as their inspiration/theme. One is to be a traditional European/early Australian landscape, one a Modernist work and one a Post Modern work. Write an Analysis of each, showing your understanding of how the four frames can provide different ways of appreciating artworks. As a result of the invention of photography the physical environment has been a source of artist inspiration. The evolution of the interpretation of the world around artists can be demonstrated by the exploration of the practice of traditional artist Eugene Von Guerard, modernist artist Rosalie Gascoigne and post-modern artist Janet Laurence. It is from this the audience is able to determine how the physical environment has influenced art and in turn provide insight to the varying perspectives on the appreciation of artworks. Eugene Von Guerard (b. Austria 1811 – d. London 1901) is a traditional European artist who explored the western physical environment. Living in Italy, Germany, Australia and England we can observe the influence which the environs had on his art marking. In the 1830’s Von Guerard trained in Giovanibattista Bassi’s art school in Rome and later studied landscape painting in Germany at the Dusseldorf Academy. Whilst primarily an artist, he also considered himself an explorer taking long treks in Australia and New Zealand. It was from these trips that had created finely detailed pencil drawings in sketch books. These were later used as the bases for his paintings. Von Guerard expressed nature as he remembered it both its overwhelming beauty and terror at times. It is evident in his works the observations he made on the light and colour within nature. He predominately worked in the convention at the time of oil painting. He used the medium meticulously in painstaking detail. Von Guerard’s deep examination of the land around him enabled him to gain an intense relationship with it which in turn reflected in his art making. Von Guerard being a romantic artist, observed the connections between art and nature. He gave a sense of place in the grandeur and beauty of the landscape. Von Guerard investigated the development of colonial art and found issues in the isolation parochialism (of narrow local interest) and within European traditions. His aversion to this resulted in his contribution to the movement away from English landscape tradition. This personal artist style was heavily influenced by Claude Lorraine, Nicolas Poussiu and Salvator Rosa. He was further inspired by the German Romantic landscape tradition; this is exemplified by Casper Friedrich who attempted to link man and God through nature. His influence to the art world saw him being appointed in 1870 to be the first master of school of painting at the National Gallery of Victoria. Here he influenced artist training for eleven years particularly Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts. During this period Von Guerard was renowned for his rigid adherence to picturesque subject matter and detailed treatment. It can be observed within North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko (1863) the romantic style of Von Guerard’s practice. North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko, an oil painting on canvas is immensely large scale at 66. 5 by 116. 8cm. Its meticulous detail heightens the overwhelming size exposing the grandeur of the mountains surrounding the artist. The areas of the foreground and the mound of large boulders on the left are particularly perplexing. The boulders are said to be introduced to emphasise human insignificance and enforce a sense of drama. They serve to provide a link between the foreground, the distant mountains and the sky, that records the passage from heavy rain to bright sunshine. These rocks echo those on peaks at the centre of the composition, gloriously patterned by the snow that has melted to reveal the grassy slopes underneath. The rich purples and oranges and lush greens, matched with the brutality of the rocks and the blankness of the white snow, capture a natural beauty that changes with the time of day and weather conditions. This exemplifies Von Guerard’s passionate emotions towards the landscape and the disappointment as the storm cuts the expedition short. The billowing rainclouds entering from the left create dark shadows over the foreground, the crisp greys and blues suggesting the cool temperatures of the area. Within the foreground the audience observes a narrative in the group of Professor Neumayers scientific expedition undertaking a magnetic survey. The central figure is speculated to Von Guerard to the left is Neumayer. In the distant sky he has captured an approaching storm. The inclusion of the human figures signals both the sense of isolation and the peacefulness of the scene, while also highlighting the vastness of the mountain. It is evident from examination of photographs, the topographical accuracy that Von Guerard evoked. The influence which the conventions at the time had on North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko is highly evident with the composition of the artwork. The framing by the rocks on the left was readily enforced at art schools during this period. Influences of the western world are apparent with relationships between science and art and god and nature. However Von Guerard has moved away from traditional English conventions with his sense of isolation, unknown location and anti-parochial views. By using meticulous detail he strived to depict beauty at its highest form. This meaning North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko was sublime, large and majestic. Unfortunately for Von Guerard this technique employed in North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko was considered a commercial failure. The isolation made it insignificant for the at the time audience to comprehend, this was fuelled with its sublime, grandeur nature. His raw dramatic approach to nature was poorly received. James Smith an influential critic, who had always been an enthusiastic supporter, dismissed Von Guerard’s work for its â€Å"microscopism†. Von Guerard ultimately had to sell the painting himself in Vienna, 1873. James Gleeson found it 100 years after it creation and passed it on to the Australian National Gallery. Von Guerard’s paintings are often praised by contemporary critics for their grandeur and faithfulness to nature, although they were also criticised for their photographic nature. Art Curator Candice Bruce who brought Von Guerard’s work back into the light in 1980, spoke of the work in a positive regard telling of the â€Å"high complexity and depth†¦ exposing audiences to the subtle charm of this fantastic land of monstrosities†. This positive reception is enforced by Geelong Galleries, Geoffrey Edwards who articulates of the â€Å"remarkable masterpiece†, that is â€Å"a golden vista†¦beautifully lit†¦ shines off its colonial enterprise† and has â€Å"no substitute†. Today Von Guerard’s paintings are valued for the compositions and executions as for the subject matter. His strong interest in Romantic association has resulted in a heavy influence in his art making. His practice is highly nationalistic in representation; this is evident in the exaggerated poetic purpose in North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko. Von Guerard’s practice a century later influenced Imants Tillers (b. Australia 1950) to create the appropriation of North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko, titled Mount Analogue (1985). Mount Analogue is an immensely large scale (279. 5 by 571. 5cm) oil stick and synthetic polymer paint on 165 canvas boards. It is a reinterpretation of the exact view of Von Guerard’s. His work challenges the authenticity of the original as it too is an interpretation, however it can be observed the different interpretations of the physical landscape. The examination of the practice of Von Guerard has determined the significant influence the physical landscape has had upon his inspiration as an artist. The audience is able to observe through the decomposition of his artwork North-East view from the Northern Top of Mount Kosciusko the vast perspectives in which we can appreciate artworks. Similarly, Modernist artist Rosalie Gascoigne (b. New Zealand 1917 – d. Australia 1999) draws inspiration from the Australian. Living in rural town of Monaro in the Southwest of New South Wales it is evident within her art making the influence the physical environment had. Rosalie Gascoigne became an â€Å"artist† late in life. She had studied literature at university, acquiring an abiding love of poetry. She later would come to describe her working practice by quoting Wordsworth on â€Å"emotion recollected in tranquillity†. Gascoigne never attempted to paint and never sought to go to art school. I’ve always known how hopeless I was at painting or drawing†. She spent many long days in solitude where she developed her highly original powers of observation. She broke the status quo of her time by creating assemblages of found materials including wood, iron, wire, feathers, signs, boxes, crates, lino, enamelware, galvanised tin, corrugated iron and masonite. These objects rather than accurately depict, elements of the world around her: the landscape around her home and the materials and textures of rural life. Travelling around the countryside collecting materials was integral to Gascoigne’s art practice. Gascoigne a bored 1950’s housewife having no training as an artist created works without considering conventions of the period. Her singular vision of the landscape was expressed in stunning decisive constructions made from the worn and weathered objects she found within it. She found the Australian landscape had a degree of personal freedom in it and became absorbed by â€Å"the width and the rock under your feet and the high sky†. She was not interested in describing the visual reality, picturesque beauty or stores of the Australian landscape, and chose to capture the essence of the landscape’s opography, space, air, vegetation and the daily and seasonal natural rhythms of nature, in compositions that were often startling in their refined simplicity. This was further influenced by the poetry of Peter Porter and David Campbell who also evoked their work around the landscape of Canberra. Gascoigne intricately has woven glimpses of her past feelings and experiences into her work creating art of an extraordinarily transcendent nature. Piece to Walk Around (1981) highlights the unique nature of Gascoigne’s practice. Piece to Walk Around, is comprised of bundles of saffron thistle sticks arranged into 20 squares each 80 by 80 by 1. 5 cm. These squares lay directly on the floor in a patchwork; one bundle running one way, then one other. The criss-cross formation recalls the undulating countryside, the ordering of agriculture and industry and the mottled effects of light and shadow on it. The work conveys a sense of infinite expansiveness and liberation experienced in the country, as manifested through the grid, here understood as an open-ended structure to which additional bundles of thistles could be theoretically added or subtracted. In Piece to Walk Around the literal depiction of the environment is stripped back to its very essence and the work becomes a microcosm of the landscape. The title is used to draw attention to the changing visual effects as one circles the work and the shifting play on the natural material. It is evident from the innovative nature of Piece to Walk Around that western conventions had little impact on Gascoigne’s practice. However Japanese influence is demonstrated through the formal composition and precise organisation of the bundles. The absence of art school allowed for Gascoigne to be singularly influenced by the world around her and not by conventions enforced by the art masters. The resolved use and order of her â€Å"found† materials reflects the influence her interest in flower arranging induced. The isolation of which she endured in the country allowed ability to entirely appreciate and observe the world around her before drawing inspiration from it. Piece to Walk Around was well received by the art world. Its simplicity made it easy for the audience to comprehend fulfilling Gascoigne’s aim to make art accessible to everyone. Gascoigne proposed that whilst â€Å"the viewer’s response to the landscape may differ† she hopes that â€Å"this picture will convey some sense of the countryside† and â€Å"induce in the viewer the liberating feeling of being in the open country†. Her Sydney dealer of over 10 years Roslyn Oxley said â€Å"she was very strong and to the point; there is never anything timid about her work†. Critic Sebastian Smee noted that â€Å"Gascoigne resembles a scavenging bowerbird in a world where the production of blue plastic has ceased. What to do? What to do†¦.? Nest while you can! †. This quote illuminates practice precisely highlighting the beauty and simplicity of her work from the influence of nature. Australian Art Collector reporter Judith White spoke of Piece to Walk Around being a â€Å"unique and imperishable contribution to art†. In 1994 Gascoigne was awarded an Order of Australia for services to art signifying her contribution to the art world. Piece to Walk Around was donated by the Gascoigne family after Roslyn Gascoigne’s death to the Museum of Contemporary Art allowing for a broader audience and the ability for her artwork to inspire a new generation. It was Gascoigne’s innovative practice that resulted in her success. Gascoigne’s engages minimalism’s sense of order in an original take on the physical environment. She employs a mixture Japanese of formal composition and rough Australian nature to break traditional conventions that define the individual styles. Gascoigne’s concepts from Piece to Walk Around were evident amongst a broad range of her artworks. Untitled 12 squares of 6 (1980-81) is another segment from the series in which Piece to Walk Around is derived from. It is created with identical composition as Piece to Walk Around however constructed from sawn weather wood to a large 90 by 119. 5cm. This artwork demonstrates the concept of how individuals can gather varying interpretations from the physical landscape and that this inspiration can impact upon the broad material practice of an artist. Through the analysis of Gascoigne’s practice, it can be observed the substantial influence that the physical landscape has had upon the artist. The audience is able to compare through the decomposition of Gascoigne’s artwork Piece to Walk Around the varying influences that the environment around them has had. It is through this the audience is able to full appreciate the construction of these artworks. It seems the influence of the physical environment has had on artists has continued to the present day through the examination of Post Modern artist Janet Laurence (b. Sydney, Australia 1947 ). Living in the city of Sydney it is exceedingly evident within the strong messages within her artwork the influence the physical environment had upon her.

Literature Review On Soil Erosion

Literature Review On Soil Erosion The Latin word erodere, (meaning to gnaw away) is the origin of the word erosion (Roose, 1996). Soil Erosion is the physical removal of topsoil by various agents, including falling raindrops, water flowing over the soil profile and gravitational pull (Lal 1990). The Soil Science Society of America defines erosion as the wearing away of the land surface by running water, wind, ice or other geological agents, including such processes as gravitational creep (SCSA, 1982). Physical erosion involves the detachment and transportation of insoluble soil particles (sand, silt and organic matter). Removal of soluble material as dissolved substances is called chemical erosion and this maybe caused by surface runoff or subsurface flow where the water moves from one layer to another within the soil profile (Lal 1990). According to ASCE, 1975, the physical processes in soil erosion include detachment of soil particles, their transportation and subsequent deposition of soil sediments downslope by raindrop impact and runoff over the soil surface. Rainfall is the most important detaching agent (Morgan and Davidson 1986; Lal, 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining soil particles (Lal 1990). The process of soil erosion occurs in three main steps, detachment of soil particles, transportation and deposition of soil particles downslope by raindrop impact and runoff over the soil surface (ASCE 1975; Morgan and Davidson, 1986, Lal 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining soil particles (Lal, 1990). Soil erosion reduces soil productivity by physical loss of topsoil, reduction in rooting depth and loss of water. In contrast soil, soil depletion means loss or decline of soil fertility due to crop removal or removal of nutrients by eluviations from water passing through the soil profile (Lal, 1990). Sedimentation however, causes off site effects like degradation of basins, accumulation of silts in water reservoirs and burial of low-lying productive areas and other problems (Lal, 1990). Sediments is the main cause of pollution and eutrophication (Lal, 1990). According to Lal 1990, soil degradation may be caused by accelerated soil erosion, depletion through intensive land use , deterioration in soil structure, changes in soil pH, leaching, salt accumulation, build up of toxic elelments such as aluminum or zinc, excessive inundation leading to reduced soil conditions and poor aeration. Soil Erosion is the most serious and least reversible form of land degradation (Lal, 1977; El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong, 1982). Soil erosion and soil loss , according to Lal (1990) have adverse effects on agriculture because they deplete the soils productivity and diminish the resourse base. 2.2 Soil Erosion Process Geologic erosion can be caused by a number of natural agents including rainfall, flowing water and ice, wind and the the mass movement of soil bodies under the action of gravity which cause the loosened or dissolved earthy and rock materials to be removed from a place and eventually deposited to a new location (Lal,1990; Morgan and Davidson, 1986). The Soil Science Society of America (SCSA, 1982) described geologic erosion as the normal or natural erosion caused by geologic processes acting over long periods and resulting in the wearing away of mountains, the building up of flood plains, coastal plains. Etc. The slow and constructive natural soil erosion process has been significantly accelerated by human activities of poor farming practices, overgrazing, ground clearing for construction, logging and mining (Lo, 1990). Accelerated erosion not only affects the soil but also the environment and is the primary cause of soil degradation (Lal, 1990). Agriculture has been identified as th e primary cause of accelerated soil erosion (Pimentel, 1976). 2.3 Soil Characteristics in the Tropics Extremes of climate and wide variety of parent materials cause great contrast of soil properties in the tropics from soils in other temperate regions. In the tropics soils are highly variable and diverse like the vegetation (Sanchez and Buoi, 1975; Van Wambeke, 1992). The main soil types are alfisols, oxisols, ultisols and inceptisols (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropical soils low in weatherable minerals and basic cations (sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium) resulted from continuous weathering of parent materials (Lo, 1990). The ability of these soils to keep plant nutrients is largely dependent on the humus content found in plant biomass and the organic matter (Rose,1993). The inactivity of soil mineral constituents (kaolin and sesquioxides) in these soils, causes deficiency in crop nutrients, lowers the capacity to retain basic cations, limits active relationship with organic matter and excessively immobilizes phosphates and related anions, a condition which are highly toxic to plant roots (Lo, 1990). Crop production in tropical soils are constrained by primarily aluminum- derived soil acidity and infertility but generally their physical properties are favourable (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropic soils have moderate to high permeability under natural conditions, but susceptible to slaking and development of impermeable crust upon action of raindrops and as a result runoff increases with continuous cultivation (Lal, 1982). This crusting cause insignificant reduction of filtration rate, increasing water runoff which leads to acceleration of soil erosion (Falayl and Lal, 1979). It is important to note however that heavy and intense rains cause severe erosion in the tropics (Morgan, 1974; Wilkinson 1975; Amezquita and Forsythe, 1975; Lal 1976; Aina, Lal and Taylor, 1977; Bois, 1978; Sheng 1982). 2.4 Soil Erosion on Steep Slope According to Lal 1990, Steeplands refer to lands with a slope gradient greater than 20%. It is important to note however that flat undulating lands have a great potential for crop production and agricultural development. Due to the possibility of soil erosion and the problem of mechanization, the steep areas are considered marginal for agriculture production (Lal, 1990). The difficult topography in steepland agriculture restricts mechanizations of operations thus, reducing all agricultural activities (land preparation, cultivation and harvesting), limiting the farmer in scale and efficiency. Inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides have to be carried manually by the farmer. As a resulted they are used scarcely. Observably any increase in the use of these agricultural inputs will result in decline in he farmers profits from the generally lower agricultural field (Benvenuti, 1988). For all these reasons steepland farmers tend to concentrate in high value crop production of limited scale (Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad 1990). It is important to note however that farmers prefer steepslopes due to cultural hand cultivation, planting and harvesting can be done in an upright fashion (Williams and Walter, 1988). Futher more subsistence farmers are found on steep slopes because of more favourable environmental conditions such as lower temperatures, reduced diseases and h igher reliability of rainfall. (Hurni, 1988). In the tropics, removal of forest vegetation causes excessive leaching and accelerated soil nutrient loss. Being highly weathered soil types , their contained minerals generally have poor ability to retain sorbed nutrients against leaching. Clay soils with high residualmiron contents are considered superior in resistance to runoff caused soil erosion; thus, soils emanated from basic igneous rocks and red soils developed from calcareous rocks are strongly aggregated due to the cementing property of iron oxides, hence, soil erosion is expected to be less than for most other soils. Also soils developed from fragmentary volcanic materials with andic properties are resistant to soil erosion (Sheng, 1986; Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad, 1990; Lal, 1990). Soils formed from shales, schists, phyillites and sandstones are considered highly erodible. Soils produced from these rocks are high in both sand or silt fraction, and clay minerals and iron oxides are generally insufficient as cementing agents for a stable-structured soil. These parent materials are generally rich in muscovite occurring in all soil particle-size fractions. Micah-rich soils are weak-structured, and thus raindrops can easily dislodged the weak aggregates, while the clay fraction dispersed in water. The resulting mica flakes settling on their flat axes in the water film on the soil surface causes soil crusting. The formation of soil crusts further restricts water entry into the soil (Ahmad and Robin, 1971; Sumner, 1995), resulting to disposal of a much greater volume of runoff water, a condition which leads to further disintegration of soil aggregates and transport of colloidal soil material (Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad 1990). Soil crust restricts gaseous exchange leading to anaerobic soil conditions, denitrification, toxic effects due to ethylene production, and mechanical impedance to seedling emergence (Ahmad 1987; Ahmad, 1990). Steep slope cultivation can cause certain instability in the ecological system with both onsite and offsite detrimental impacts (El-Swaify, Garnier and Lo, 1987). Soil, climate, land use and farming systems affect the extent and the degree of severity of soil erosion. However, regardless of soil and climatic conditions, intensively used steeplands in densely populated regions experience severe soil erosion problem. Land use influences the degree of severity of soil erosion on steeplands. Uncontrollable grazing or over grazing, exensive and abusive cultivation, diversified cropping are responsible for severe soil erosion in unprotected arable lands (Roose, 1988; Liao et al 1988). Ahmad (1987;1990) reportd soil loss of approximately 120 t0 180 tonnes per hectare in Tobago Trinidad. In Australia, annual soil loss of 200 t/ha to 328 t/ha has ben reported from sloping sugar cane plantations in central and north Queensland (Sallaway, 1979; Mathews and Makepeace 1981). There are two types of soil erosion associated with the Caribbean region, land slipping and gullying. Land slipping is a manifestation of mass movement associated with steepland agriculture and the severity being strongly influenced by the parent materials. Land clearing (example deforestation) and crop production can influence land slipping particularly in the early portion of the wet season when the cleared soil wets faster due to saturation of the soil above rock. Serious dislocations, crop loss and destruction of any mechanical anti erosion devices can result from this form of mass movements. Due to drastic changes in hydrological conditions experienced by land naturally prone already to slipping and cleared for agriculture for the first time land slippage would be of common experience (Ahmad 1987; Ahmad 1990). Gullying is another common form of soil erosion that occurs on steep land bcause of the terrain involved. This is more common on sandy soils, volcanic soils and vertisols, which are all porous materials. Soils easily attain saturated conditions upon the rapid entry of water, consequently breaking the material and ultimately, leading to the formation of gullies. Agricultural activities enables this soil erosion in steeplands by allowing rapid soil wetting upon the start of the wet season. Farming activities though unsuitably oriented field boundaries, foot tracks and the lack of provision for disposal of surface water are some main causes of gullying, even on soils not prone to this tpe of steepland soil erosion (Ahmad 1987;Ahmad 1990). Since steeplands are traditionally considered marginal for agricultural crop production, most research on soil erosion and soil conservation has been done on either flat land or rolling land with a maximum slope of about 20%'(Lal, 1988). 2.5 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion The causes of soil erosion have been intensively discussed during the past 40 years. Soil erosion is a natural process that is enhanced by human activity (Richter, 1998) and occurs in all landscapes and under different land uses. In addition to human activities, soil erosion processes are also caused by morphometric characteristics of the land surface, the erosive forces of rainfall and the erodibility of soils and soil surfaces. When rainwater reaches the soil surface it will either enter the soil or run off. Runoff occurs when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Water erosion is the result of the dispersion action of rain drops, the transporting power of water and also the vulnerability of the soil to dispersion and movement (Baver and Gardner, 1972). The effects of soil erosion is also classified: definition of gullies and explanation of gully development is given by Morgan (1996), as well as Hudson (1995) who additionally focuses on individual cases of the development of gullies. Toy et al (2002) give detailed definitions of soil erosion features and processes such as sheet erosion and inter-rill erosion, rill erosion, as well as ephemeral and permanent gully erosion. Rill erodibility depends both directly and indirectly on soil properties such as bulk density, organic carbon and clay content, clay mineralogy, cations in the exchange complex, soil pH and experimental conditions such as moisture content, aging of prewetted soil and quality of eroding water (Rapp,1998). Govers (1990) found that runoff erosion resisitance of a loamy material was extremely sensitive to variation in the initial moisture content and to a lesser extent to changes in bulk density. The process of water erosion can be separated into two components, rill and interrill erosion (Young and Onstad, 1978). Interrill erosion (sheet erosion) is mainly caused by raindrop impact and removes soil in a thin almost imperceptible layer (Foster, 1989). In interril erosion the flow of water is generally unconfined, except between soil clods and covers much of the soil surface. As the velocity of flow increases the water incises into the soil and rills forms (Evans,1980). Rill erosion begins when the eroding capacity of the flow at some point exceeds the ability of the soil particles to resistant detachment by flow (Meyer cited by Rapp, 1998). Soil is detached by headcut advance from knickpoints (De Ploey, 1989; Bryan, 1990), rill slide sloughing and hydraulic shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998) as well as by slumping by undercutting of side walls and scour hole formation (Van Liew and Saxton, 1983). These processes are usually combined into a detachment prediction equation as a function of average shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998). When the rills develop in the landscape, a three to five fold increase in the soil loss commonly occurs (Moss, Green and Hutka 1982 and Meyer and Harmon 1984). 2.5.1 Vegetative Factors The effects of vegetation can be classified into three catergories: The interception of raindrops by the canopy (DHuyvetter, 1985). Two effects are associated with this. Firstly, part of the intercepted water will evaporate from the leaves and stems and thus reduce runoff. Secondly, when raindrops strike the vegetation, the energy of the drops is dissipated and there is no direct impact on the soil surface. The interception percentage depends on the type of crop, the growth stage and the number of plants per unit area. A well distributed, close growing surface vegetative cover will slow down the rate at which water flows down the slope and will also reduce concentration of water (DHuyvetter, 1985). As a result, it will decrease the erosive action of running water. There is also the effect of roots and biological activity on the formation of stable aggregrates, which results in a stable soil structure and increased infiltration that reduces runoff and decreases erosion (DHuyvetter, 1985). Increased permeability also reduces erosion as a result of in increased water percolation due to better drainage. Stables aggregrates in the topsoil also counteract crusting. 2.5.2 Rainfall Factors Raindrop size, shape, duration of a storm and wind speed interactions controls the erosive power of rainfall (DHuyvetter, 1985). The erosivity of rainfall is expressed in terms of kinetic energy and is affected by various factors. According to Wischmeier and Smith (1965), the intensity of rainfall is closely related tot e kinetic energy, according to the regression equation E = 1.213 + 0.890 log I Where E = the kinetic energy (kg.m/m2.mm) I = rainfall intensity (mm/h) Raindrop size, distribution and shape all influence the energy momentum of a rainstorm. Laws and Parson (1943) reported an increase in median drop size with increase in rain intensity. The relationship between mean drop size (D50) and rainfall is given by: D50:2.23 I 0.182 (inch per hour). The median size of rain drops increases with low and medium intensity fall, but declines slightly for high intensity rainfall (Gerrard, 1981). The kinetic energy of an rainfall event is also related to the velocity of the raindrops at the time of impact with the soil (DHuyvetter, 1985). The distance through which the rain drop must fall to maintain terminal velocity is a function of drop size. The kinetic energy of a rainstorm is related to the terminal velocity according to the equation: Ek = IV2/2 Where Ek = energy of the rain storm I = Intensity V= Velocity of raindrop before impact Ellison (1945) developed an equation showing that the relationship between the soil detached, terminal velocity, drop diameter and rainfall intensity: E = KV4.33 d1.07 I0.63 Where E = relative amount of soil detached K = soil constant V = velocity of raindrops (ft/sec) d = diameter of raindrops (mm) I = rainfall intensity 2.5.2.1 Effect of rainfall intensity on runoff and soil loss According to Morgan (1995), soil loss is closely related to rainfall partly through the detaching power of raindrops striking the soil surface and the contribution of rain to runoff. If rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration capacity of the soil, no surface runoff occurs and the infiltration rate would equal the rainfall intensity (Horton, 1945) as sited by Morgan (1995). If the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration rate equals the infiltration capacity and the excess rainfall forms surface runoff. According to Morgan (1995), when the soil is unsaturated, the soil matric potential is negative and water is held in the capillaries due to matrics suction. For this reason, under saturated conditions sands may produce runoff very quickly although their infiltration capacity is not exceeded by the rainfall intensity. Intensity partially controls hydraulic conductivity, increasing the rainfall intensity may cause conductivity to rise so that although runoff may have formed rapidly at relatively low rainfall intensity, higher rainfall intensities do not always produce greater runoff (Morgan, 1995). This mechanism explains the reason why infiltration rates sometimes increase with rainfall intensities (Nassif and Wilson, 1975). 2.5.3 Soil Factors According to Baver et al, (1972), the effect of soil properties on water erosion can be in two ways : Firstly, certain properties determine the rate at which rainfall enters the soil. Secondly, some properties affect the resistance of the soil against dispersion and erosion during rainfall and runoff. The particle size distribution is an important soil property with regards to erodibility. Generally it is found that erodible soils have a low clay content (DHuyvetter, 1985). Soils with more than 35% clay are often regarded as being cohesive and having stable aggregates which are resistant to dispersion by raindrops (Evans, 1980). Evans also stated that sands and coarse loamy sands are not easily eroded by water due to its high infiltration rate. In contrast soils with a high silt or fine sand fraction are very erodible. Erodibility of soil increases with the proportion of aggregates less than 0.5mm (Bryan, 1974). Factors which contribute to aggregate stability include organic matter content, root secretions, mucilaginous gels formed by break down of organic matter, the binding of particles by sesquioxides and the presence of a high Ca concentration on the exchange sites of the colloids instead of a high sodium content (DHuyvetter, 1985). The depth of erosion is determined by the soil profile (Evans, 1980). According to Evans soil horizons below the A horizon or plough layer are often more compact and less erodible. The texture and chemical composition of the sub surface horizon can also have an adverse effect. Normally deep gullies can be cut if the parent material is unconsolidated. If resistant bedrock is near the surface only rills will develop. Soil rich in surface stones are less susceptible to erosion (Lamb, 1950 and Evans, 1980). Stones protect the soil against erosion and also increase the infiltration of the flowing water into the soil. The antecedent soil moisture and the surface roughness are both regarded by Evans (1980) as important soil factors affecting erosion. The ability of a soil to accept rainfall depends on the moisture content at the time of the rainfall event. 2.5.3.1 Factors affecting aggregate stability Soil structure is determined by the shape and size distribution of aggregates. Aggregrate size and strengthe determine the physical properties of a soil and its susceptibility to breakdown due to water forces. Their stability will have a decisive effect on soil physical properties (Lynch and Bragg, 1985). The main binding materials giving stable aggregates in air dry state are the glueing agents in organic matter (Chaney and Swift, 1984; Tisdale and Oades, 1982) and sesquioxides (Goldberg and Glaubic, 1987). 2.5.3.1.1 Aluminium and Iron Oxides The soil used by Kemper and Koch (1966) contained relatively little free iron, although it did contribute to aggregrate stability. Their data show a sharp increase of free iron from 1 to 3%. Goldberg and Glaubic (1987) concluded that Al-oxides were more effective than Fe-oxides in stabilizing soil structure. Al-oxides have a greater proportion of sub-micrometer size particles in a sheet form as opposed to the spherical form of Fe-particles. Shainberg, Singer and Janitzky (1987) compared the effect of aluminium and iron oxides on the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy soil. 2.5.3.1.2 Organic Matter Organic matter can bind soil particles together into stable soil aggregates. The stabilizing effect of organic matter is well documented. Little detailed information is available on the organic matter content required to sufficiently strengthen aggregates with ESP values greater than 5 or 7, and containing illite or montmorrillionite, so as to prevent their dispersion in water (Smith, 1990). High humus content makes the soil less susceptible to the unfavourable influence of sodium (Van den Berg, De Boer, Van der Malen, Verhoeven, Westerhof and Zuur, 1953). Kemper and Koch (1966) also found that aggregate stability increased with an increase in the organic matter content of soils. A maximum increase of aggregate stability was found with up to 2% organic matter, after which aggregate stability increased very little with further increases in organic matter content. 2.5.3 Slope Factors Slope characteristics are important in determining the amount of runoff and erosion ( DHuyvetter, 1985). As slope gradient increases, runoff and erosion usually increases (Stern, 1990). At low slopes due to the low overland flow velocities, detachment of soil particles from the soil surface into the water layer is due to detachment alone (Stern, 1990). Additionally, at low slope gradients, particles are splashed into the air in random directions unlike the case with steeply sloping land where down slope splash occurs (Watson and Laflen, 1985). As slope gradient increases, the ability for surface runoff to entrain and transport sediments increases rapidly until the entrainment by the surface runoff becomes dominant contributing to sediment transport (Stern, 1990). Foster , Meyer and Onstad (1976) presented a conceptual model that showed that at lower slopes, interill transport determined erosion, while at steeper slopes, raindrop detachment determined it. Th uniform bed characteristics of sheet flow transport tend to be replaced by channels because of instability and turbulent flow effects (Moss, Green and Hutka, 1982). There are many empirical relationships relating soil transport by surface wash to slope length and slope gradient. Zingg (1940) showed that erosion varied according to the equation: S = X1.6 tanB1.4 Where S = soil transport cm/yr X = slope length (m) B = slope gradient (%) Studies conducted by Gerrard (1981), showed that plane and convex slopes did not differ significantly in the amount of soil lost by surface runoff, but concave slopes were less eroded. Some researchers such as Zingg (1940) and Mc Cool et al (1987) indicated that soil erosion increases exponentially with increase in slope gradient. The relationship is indicated after Zing (1940) by: E = aSb where E is the soil erosion, S is the slope gradient (%) and a and b are empirical constants. The value of b ranges from 1.35 to 2.0. The other relationship between erosion and slope gradient for inter-rill erosion is given by Mc Cool et al (1987) E = a sin b Q+C Q is the slope angle in degrees A,b and C are empirical constants. However, even if the effect of slope gradient on erosion is well recognized, several studies indicate that the power relationship between slope gradient and soil loss over predicts interrill erosion rate by as much as two or more times (Torri, 1996;Fox and Bryan, 1999), and the relationship is better described as linear. 2.8 Soil Erosion Impacts 2.8.1 Soil Physical Properties Progressive soil erosion increases the magnitude of soil related constraints for crop production. These constraints can be physical, chemical and biological. The important physical constraints caused by erosion are reduced rooting depth, loss of soil water storing capacity (Schertz et al 1984; Sertsu, 2000), crusting and soil compaction and hardening of plinthite (Lal, 1988). Erosion also results in the loss of clay colloids due to preferential removal of fine particles from the soil surface (Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). The loss of clay influences soil tilth and consistency. Exposed subsoil is often of massive structure and harder consistency than the aggregated surface soil (Lal, 1988). Development of rills and gullies may change the micro-relief that may make use of farming machinery difficult. Another effect of erosion is that the manangement and timing of farm operations. 2.8.2 Soil Chemical Properties Soil erosion reduces the fertility status of soils (Morgan, 1986; Williams et al., 1990). Soil chemical constraints and nutritional problems related to soil erosion include low CEC, low plant nutrients (NPK) and trace elements (Lal, 1988; Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). Massy et al (1953) reported an average loss of 192 kg of organic matter, 10.6 kg of N and 1.8kg per ha on a Winsconsin soils with 11% slope. Sharpley and Smith (1990) reported that the mean annual loss of total P in runoff from P fertilized watersheds is equivalent to an average of 15%, 12% and 32% of the annual fertilizer P applied to wheat, mixed crop grass and peanut sorghum rotation practices respectively. Researchers (Massy et al 1953; Lal, 1975) have also reported extensive loss of N in eroded sediments. 2.8.3 Productivity Quantifying the effects on crop yields is a difficult task. It involves the evaluation of interactions between soil properties, crop characteristics and climate. The effects are also cumulative and not observed until long after accelerated erosion begins. The degree of soil erosions effects on crop yield depends on soil profile characteristics and management systems. It is difficult to establish a direct relationship between rates of soil erosion and erosion induced soil degradation on the one hand and crop yield on the other (Lal, 1988). It is well known that soil erosion can reduce crop yields through loss of nutrients, structural degradation and reduce of depth and water holding capacity (Timilin et al, 1986; Lal,1988). Loss of production in eroded soil further degrades its productivity which in turn accelerates soil erosion. The cumulative effect observed over a long period of time may lead to irreversible loss of productivity in shallow soils with hardened plinthite or in soils that respond to expensive management and additional inputs (Lal,1988). 2.8.4 Off Site Effects of Soil Erosion. Effects of erosion include siltation of rivers, crop failure at low lying areas due to flooding, pollution of waterbodies due to the various chemicals brought by the runoff from different areas. Several studies reported the significance of the off site effects of soil erosion on land degradation (eg. Wall and ven Den,1987; Lo, 1990; Robertson and Colletti, 1994; Petkovic et al, 1999) Rainwater washes away materials that originate from fertilizers and various biocides (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides and pesticides) which are applied in large concentrations. They reappear in greatr quantities in the hydrosphere polluting and contaminating the water environment (Zachar,1982;Withers, and Lord, 2002; Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002). Chemical pollution of water mainly by organic matter from farm fields causes rapid eutrophication in waterways (Zachar, 1982;Zakova et al, 1993; Lijklema, 1995). 2.8.5 Soil Erosion Models Modelling soil erosion is the process of mathematically describing soil particle detachment, transport and deposition on land surfaces (Nearing et al, 1994). Erosion models are used as predictive tools for assessing soil loss and project planning. They can also be used for understanding erosion processes and their impacts (Nearing et al 1994). There are three main types of models, empirical or statistical models, conceptual models and physically based models (Morgan 1995, Nearing et al 1994, Merritt et al 2003). It is important to note however that there is no sharp difference among them. 2.8.5.1 Physically Based Models These models are based on solving fundamental physical equations describing stream flow and sediment and associated nutrient generations in a specific catchment (Merritt et al ., 2003). They are developed to predict the spatial distribution of runoff and sediment over land surfaces during individual storms in addition to total runoff and soil loss (Morgan, 1995). Physically based models are also called process based models (Morgan, 1995) as they rely on empirical equations to determine erosion processes. These models use a particular differential equation known as the continuity equation which is a statement of conservation of matter as it moves through space over time. The common physically based models used in water quality studies and erosion include : The Areal Non-Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation (ANSWERS) (Beasley et al., 1980), Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) (Knisel, 1980), Griffith University Erosion System Temp late (GUEST) (Misra and Rose, 1996), European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM) (Morgan, 1998), Productivity, Erosion and Runoff, Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques (PERFECT) (Littleboy et al., 1992) and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) (Laflen et al., 1991). 2.8.5.2 Empirical M